Education

Research Description

Catalytic Conversion of Animal Manure into Biochar and Liquid Oils, Catalytic Oxidation of Lignin Into Value-Added Aromatics - CBERD Core Project, Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Swine Facilities via Adsorption: Technical and Economical Evaluation, Manure Belt Collection System and Energy Recovery System, Modeling Airflow in the Brooks Gasification Process, Spawning Activity of Mud Minnows (Fundulus heteroclitis) in Tank-based Systems for the Production of Baitfi,

Publications

Changes in lignin chemistry of switchgrass due to delignification by sodium hydroxide pretreatment

Jung, W., Savithri, D., Sharma-Shivappa, R., & Kolar, P. (2018), Energies, 11(2).

Catalytic valorization of lignin using niobium oxide

Das, L., Kolar, P., Sharma-Shivappa, R., Classen, J. J., & Osborne, J. A. (2017), Waste and Biomass Valorization, 8(8), 2673–2680.

Pre-treatment of biomasses using magnetised sulfonic acid catalysts

Ansanay, Y., Kolar, P., Sharma-Shivappa, R., Cheng, J., Park, S., & Arellano, C. (2017), Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 48(2), 117–122.

Thermochemical conversion: A prospective swine manure solution for North Carolina

Lentz, Z., Classen, J., & Kolar, P. (2017), Transactions of the ASABE, 60(3), 591–600.

Avocado seed-derived activated carbon for mitigation of aqueous ammonium

Zhu, Y. Y., Kolar, P., Shah, S. B., Cheng, J. J., & Lim, P. K. (2016), Industrial Crops and Products, 92, 34–41.

Eggshell as an inexpensive adsorbent for removal of p-Cresol

Wakchaure, G. C., Das, L., & Kolar, P. (2016), Transactions of the ASABE, 59(3), 965–974.

Investigation of adsorption of p-cresol on coconut shell-derived activated carbon

Zhu, Y. Y., & Kolar, P. (2016), Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 68, 138–146.

Biofiltration of ammonia and GHGs from swine gestation barn pit exhaust

Hood, M. C., Shah, S. B., Kolar, P., Li, L. W., & Stikeleather, L. (2015), Transactions of the ASABE, 58(3), 771–782.

Calcined eggshell as an inexpensive catalyst for partial oxidation of methane

Karoshi, G., Kolar, P., Shah, S. B., Gilleskie, G., & Das, L. (2015), Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 57, 123–128.

Swine manure char as an adsorbent for mitigation of p-Cresol

Fitzgerald, S., Kolar, P., Classen, J., Boyette, M., & Das, L. (2015), Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 34(1), 125–131.

Niobium oxide catalyst for delignification of switchgrass for fermentable sugar production

Ansanay, Y., Kolar, P., Sharma-Shivappa, R. R., & Cheng, J. J. (2014), Industrial Crops and Products, 52, 790–795.

Adsorbents from pine wood via K2CO3-assisted low temperature carbonization for adsorption of p-cresol

Das, L., Kolar, P., Classen, J. J., & Osborne, J. A. (2013), Industrial Crops and Products, 45, 215–222.

Aromatization of n-octane over Pd/C catalysts

Yin, M. C., Natelson, R. H., Campos, A. A., Kolar, P., & Roberts, W. L. (2013), Fuel , 103, 408–413.

Hydrolysis of ozone pretreated energy grasses for optimal fermentable sugar production

Panneerselvam, A., Sharma-Shivappa, R. R., Kolar, P., Clare, D. A., & Ranney, T. (2013), Bioresource Technology, 148, 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.08.119

Potential of ozonolysis as a pretreatment for energy grasses

Panneerselvam, A., Sharma-Shivappa, R. R., Kolar, P., Ranney, T., & Peretti, S. (2013), Bioresource Technology, 148, 242–248.

Synthesis of solid acid catalyst from tobacco stalk for esterification of oleic acid

Jairam, S., Kolar, P., Sharma-Shivappa, R. S., & Osborne, J. A. (2013), Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 29(3), 385–389.

Advanced oxidation of toluene using Ni-olivine catalysts: Part 1. syntheses, characterization, and evaluation of Ni-olivine catalysts for toluene oxidation

Smith, V. M., Kolar, P., Boyette, M. D., Chinn, M., Smith, C., Gangadharan, R., & Zhang, G. (2012), Transactions of the ASABE, 55(3), 1013–1024.

Advanced oxidation of toluene using Ni-olivine catalysts: part 2. Toluene oxidation kinetics and mechanism of Ni-olivine catalysts synthesized via electroless deposition and thermal impregnation

Smith, V. M., Kolar, P., Boyette, M. D., Chinn, M., Smith, C., Gangadharan, R., & Zhang, G. (2012), Transactions of the ASABE, 55(6), 2273–2283.

Efficient temperature control in recirculating aquaculture tanks

Saidu, M. M., Hall, S. G., Kolar, P., Schramm, R., & Davis, T. (2012), Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 28(1), 161–167.

Evaluation of additive for reducing gaseous emissions from swine waste

Shah, S. B., & Kolar, P. (2012), Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, 14(2), 10–20.

Feasibility of extracting ammonia from broiler litter and scale-up considerations

Kolar, P., Shah, S. B., & Love, C. D. (2012), Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 28(4), 577–582.

KI-impregnated oyster shell as a solid catalyst for soybean oil transesterification

Jairam, S., Kolar, P., Sharma-Shivappa, R., Osborne, J. A., & Davis, J. P. (2012), Bioresource Technology, 104, 329–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.10.039

Adsorption of ammonia on ozonated activated carbon

Love, C. D., Kolar, P., Classen, J. J., & Das, L. (2011), Transactions of the ASABE, 54(5), 1931–1940.

Low-temperature catalytic oxidation of aldehyde mixtures using wood fly ash: Kinetics, mechanism, and effect of ozone

Kolar, P., & Kastner, J. R. (2010), Chemosphere, 78(9), 1110–1115.

Room-temperature oxidation of propanal using catalysts synthesized by electrochemical deposition

Kolar, P., & Kastner, J. R. (2009), Transactions of the ASABE, 52(4), 1337–1344.

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Grants

Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

Murphy-Brown, LLC (was Murphy Farms)(9/20/12 - 8/31/16)

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Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

Sponsor: Murphy-Brown, LLC (was Murphy Farms)

Start Date: 9/20/12

End Date: 8/31/16

Abstract

A common waste management technique in swine production is to use water to flush manure from under floor pits to a lagoon for anaerobic treatment and storage prior to land application as fertilizer. A large fraction of the ammonia nitrogen is lost in this system through volatilization from the lagoon and from the spray fields. With the high cost of nitrogen fertilizer and increased emphasis on preventing environmental and ecologIical contamination, many producers would welcome a system that makes better use of manure nutrients, particularly to fertilize animal feed crops. The swine production industry is widely dispersed relative to the primary production of corn and soybeans in the Midwest; therefore more efficient nutrient recovery must be accompanied by greater nutrient concentration to reduce transportation costs. A new process developed by USDA-ARS scientists (Vanotti, M.B. and Szogi, A.A, US Patent Application SN 13/164,363, June 20, 2011) includes the passage of gaseous (or free) ammonia through a microporous hydrophobic membrane and subsequent capture and concentration in an acidic stripping solution on the other side of the membrane. This project will demonstrate this gas permeable ammonia-selective membrane system in three different manure collection systems: the NCSU under floor belt system (current CIG demonstration under NRCS Agreement #69-3A75-10-165), an under floor scraper system, and a mesophilic anaerobic digester. The purpose of the project is to remove at least 50% of the ammonia nitrogen in a concentrated form that can be economically moved off the farm and managed as a valuable resource. The project plan is to develop a modular mobile membrane ammonia recovery system with appropriate tanks, pumps and supplies; this mobile system will be moved to each of three sites where effluent will be stored in an on-site tank. The membrane ammonia recovery module will be connected into the on-site tank and ammonia will be removed into the acid solution on the mobile unit. Evaluation will quantify the mass and fraction of ammonia removal, the mass and fraction of ammonia left for on-site application, the final concentration, and the required processing time. Economic analysis will predict the value of the final product and the cost at different distances from the farm at different fuel price points. The project is innovative in that this is the first viable system to concentrate ammonia nitrogen for better management rather than removing wastewater or reducing the ammonia to nitrogen gas. We expect to develop design and operational guidelines in order to transfer this technology for adaptation as an on-farm system or expand the system to treat larger amounts of wastewater. This project builds on both the existing CIG demonstration of the under floor belt system and the patented work of USDA-ARS scientists.

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Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

NC Pork Council(9/20/12 - 8/31/16)

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Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

Sponsor: NC Pork Council

Start Date: 9/20/12

End Date: 8/31/16

Abstract

A common waste management technique in swine production is to use water to flush manure from under floor pits to a lagoon for anaerobic treatment and storage prior to land application as fertilizer. A large fraction of the ammonia nitrogen is lost in this system through volatilization from the lagoon and from the spray fields. With the high cost of nitrogen fertilizer and increased emphasis on preventing environmental and ecological contamination, many producers would welcome a system that makes better use of manure nutrients, particularly to fertilize animal feed crops. The swine production industry is widely dispersed relative to the primary production of corn and soybeans in the Midwest; therefore more efficient nutrient recovery must be accompanied by greater nutrient concentration to reduce transportation costs. A new process developed by USDA-ARS scientists (Vanotti, M.B. and Szogi, A.A, US Patent Application SN 13/164,363, June 20, 2011) includes the passage of gaseous (or free) ammonia through a microporous hydrophobic membrane and subsequent capture and concentration in an acidic stripping solution on the other side of the membrane. This project will demonstrate this gas permeable ammonia-selective membrane system in three different manure collection systems: the NCSU under floor belt system (current CIG demonstration under NRCS Agreement #69-3A75-10-165), an under floor scraper system, and a mesophilic anaerobic digester. The purpose of the project is to remove at least 50% of the ammonia nitrogen in a concentrated form that can be economically moved off the farm and managed as a valuable resource. The project plan is to develop a modular mobile membrane ammonia recovery system with appropriate tanks, pumps and supplies; this mobile system will be moved to each of three sites where effluent will be stored in an on-site tank. The membrane ammonia recovery module will be connected into the on-site tank and ammonia will be removed into the acid solution on the mobile unit. Evaluation will quantify the mass and fraction of ammonia removal, the mass and fraction of ammonia left for on-site application, the final concentration, and the required processing time. Economic analysis will predict the value of the final product and the cost at different distances from the farm at different fuel price points. The project is innovative in that this is the first viable system to concentrate ammonia nitrogen for better management rather than removing wastewater or reducing the ammonia to nitrogen gas. We expect to develop design and operational guidelines in order to transfer this technology for adaptation as an on-farm system or expand the system to treat larger amounts of wastewater. This project builds on both the existing CIG demonstration of the under floor belt system and the patented work of USDA-ARS scientists.

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Combined Heat Recovery and Ammonia Control System for Broiler Brooding

United States Poultry & Egg Association(1/01/15 - 12/01/17)

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Combined Heat Recovery and Ammonia Control System for Broiler Brooding

Sponsor: United States Poultry & Egg Association

Start Date: 1/01/15

End Date: 12/01/17

Abstract

During brooding, temperature difference of up to 20ï‚°F between the ceiling and floor of a poultry house during brooding can cause substantial heat loss through the ceiling and increase cost of heating to the producer. This temperature stratification and energy use can be greatly reduced using mixing fans but recirculating the warm air collecting near the ceiling to the chicks or poults near the floor also brings down the ammonia-laden air into the breathing zone of the birds. Combining the heat recovery unit with an ammonia filtration system could reduce energy use as well as ammonia concentrations at bird height and may thus improve bird performance. Reduced propane use would also reduce CO2, CO, and water vapor concentrations inside the barn and may thus provide additional benefits to the birds. The proposed heat recovery and ammonia control (HRAC) system will consist of a fan and a filter. The filter will be a thin layer of acidified activated carbon (AC) which can sorb ammonia and amines (very odorous) and can be added back into the litter to recycle the nitrogen. Lab tests will be conducted to select the proper AC medium and to design the filter system. The HRAC will be designed using computational fluid dynamics for cost-effectiveness. Five units of the HRAC will be fabricated and after lab testing, will be deployed in the brood chamber of broiler houses for testing. Energy use, inside environmental conditions, bird performance, and litter moisture content will be compared between the test (with five HRAC) and adjacent, identical control houses. Testing will be performed for both the fall and winter flocks on farm with radiant brooders and the less-efficient pancake brooders. Based on research by others on different methods of air-mixing, with the HRAC, a 30% reduction in propane use is feasible. There is no research on the impact of reducing ammonia, CO2, CO, and water vapor concentrations at bird height on bird performance but given the impact of air quality and litter moisture on bird performance, improvements in bird performance is expected.

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Engineered windbreak wall - Negetative Strip System to Reduce Pollutant and Odor Emissions from Mechanically-Ventilated Broiler and Swine Barns

US Dept. of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS)(9/29/14 - 12/31/18)

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Engineered windbreak wall - Negetative Strip System to Reduce Pollutant and Odor Emissions from Mechanically-Ventilated Broiler and Swine Barns

Sponsor: US Dept. of Agriculture - Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS)

Start Date: 9/29/14

End Date: 12/31/18

Abstract

The likelihood of the EPA regulating air pollutant emissions and local pressure to control odors necessitate the use of cost-effective methods to treat swine barn exhaust. Currently there are no cost-effective technologies for treating exhaust from livestock barns. We propose an engineered windbreak wall - vegetative strip system where the exhaust from the barn would be partially treated in a vegetative strip causing the free- and particle-bound gases to settle out, permitting the soil and plants to assimilate these pollutants. The windbreak wall would also facilitate dilution of the exhaust to reduce odors. The system would be designed using computational fluid dynamics software, then tested in the lab, and finally installed and monitored over 24 months at commercial swine and broiler farms in Lillington, NC. In addition to evaluation reduction in gas and particulate matter concentrations in the exhaust, changes in chemical concentrations will be monitored in the plants and soil will be compared with "control treatment" samples. The cost-effectiveness of this system, expressed in $/kg of pollutant reduced will be calculated.

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Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Lingnin to High-Value Aromatics

US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)(7/01/14 - 7/01/15)

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Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Lingnin to High-Value Aromatics

Sponsor: US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)

Start Date: 7/01/14

End Date: 7/01/15

Abstract

The goal of this SBIR proposal is convert model lignin compounds into aromatic chemicals. Faraday Technologies, Inc., will provide overall leadership on this proposal whereas NCSU will provide technical assistance with respect to synthesis of platinum/carbon catalysts and analysis of experimental samples. If successful, this research will allow for production of high value chemicals from lignin streams.

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Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)(9/20/12 - 8/31/16)

×

Ammonia Recovery from Swine Wastewater with Selective Membrane Technology

Sponsor: US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)

Start Date: 9/20/12

End Date: 8/31/16

Abstract

A common waste management technique in swine production is to use water to flush manure from under floor pits to a lagoon for anaerobic treatment and storage prior to land application as fertilizer. A large fraction of the ammonia nitrogen is lost in this system through volatilization from the lagoon and from the spray fields. With the high cost of nitrogen fertilizer and increased emphasis on preventing environmental and ecological contamination, many producers would welcome a system that makes better use of manure nutrients, particularly to fertilize animal feed crops. The swine production industry is widely dispersed relative to the primary production of corn and soybeans in the Midwest; therefore more efficient nutrient recovery must be accompanied by greater nutrient concentration to reduce transportation costs. A new process developed by USDA-ARS scientists (Vanotti, M.B. and Szogi, A.A, US Patent Application SN 13/164,363, June 20, 2011) includes the passage of gaseous (or free) ammonia through a microporous hydrophobic membrane and subsequent capture and concentration in an acidic stripping solution on the other side of the membrane. This project will demonstrate this gas permeable ammonia-selective membrane system in three different manure collection systems: the NCSU under floor belt system (current CIG demonstration under NRCS Agreement #69-3A75-10-165), an under floor scraper system, and a mesophilic anaerobic digester. The purpose of the project is to remove at least 50% of the ammonia nitrogen in a concentrated form that can be economically moved off the farm and managed as a valuable resource. The project plan is to develop a modular mobile membrane ammonia recovery system with appropriate tanks, pumps and supplies; this mobile system will be moved to each of three sites where effluent will be stored in an on-site tank. The membrane ammonia recovery module will be connected into the on-site tank and ammonia will be removed into the acid solution on the mobile unit. Evaluation will quantify the mass and fraction of ammonia removal, the mass and fraction of ammonia left for on-site application, the final concentration, and the required processing time. Economic analysis will predict the value of the final product and the cost at different distances from the farm at different fuel price points. The project is innovative in that this is the first viable system to concentrate ammonia nitrogen for better management rather than removing wastewater or reducing the ammonia to nitrogen gas. We expect to develop design and operational guidelines in order to transfer this technology for adaptation as an on-farm system or expand the system to treat larger amounts of wastewater. This project builds on both the existing CIG demonstration of the under floor belt system and the patented work of USDA-ARS scientists.

Close

Catalytic Oxidation of Lignin Into Value-Added Aromatics - CBERD Core Project

Center for Bioenergy Research and Development (CBERD) - NCSU Research Site(1/01/12 - 12/31/13)

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Catalytic Oxidation of Lignin Into Value-Added Aromatics - CBERD Core Project

Sponsor: Center for Bioenergy Research and Development (CBERD) - NCSU Research Site

Start Date: 1/01/12

End Date: 12/31/13

Abstract

For a regional biorefinery to be economically viable, production of chemicals and other value-added products from biomass is equally essential (Ragauskas et al., 2006). Considering the unique structure and chemistry of lignin, there is a great potential for catalytically oxidizing lignin into fine chemicals such as vanillin, p-hydroxybenzaldehydes, etc (Zakzeski et al., 2010). In this project, we propose to synthesize and test activated carbon (surface areas > 1000 m2/g) supported metal oxides and noble metal catalysts for partial oxidation of switchgrass lignin. Specifically, we propose to: 1. Synthesize (a) activated carbon supported nickel and cobalt oxides by electrochemical deposition and (b) activated carbon supported platinum and palladium catalysts by wet impregnation. 2. Test the activity of noble and metal oxide catalysts for oxidation of switchgrass lignin into vanillin, syringaldehyde, and p-hydroxybenzaldehydes.

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Modeling Airflow in the Brooks Gasification Process

US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)(3/01/12 - 9/30/12)

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Modeling Airflow in the Brooks Gasification Process

Sponsor: US Dept. of Agriculture (USDA)

Start Date: 3/01/12

End Date: 9/30/12

Abstract

The Brooks Gasification Process (BGP) is a continuous feed, indirect heating process suitable for processing a variety of solid feedstocks, primarily manure and other agricultural waste materials. The focus of this proposed work is solely on poultry litter, the mixture of wood-chip bedding, manure, spilled feed, and water. A pilot scale unit being tested has shown significant repeated fouling of the heat exchanger by ash and tar. This project will investigate the feasibility of simulating airflow and heat transfer from within an engineering design platform to provide insights into possible design or operational modifications that would address the fouling problem.

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Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Swine Facilities via Adsorption: Technical and Economical Evaluation

National Pork Board(5/01/12 - 4/30/13)

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Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Swine Facilities via Adsorption: Technical and Economical Evaluation

Sponsor: National Pork Board

Start Date: 5/01/12

End Date: 4/30/13

Abstract

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a category of pollutants that are generated from swine houses. Typical VOCs found in swine houses include aldehydes, volatile fatty acids (VFAs), phenols, indoles, and volatile sulfur compounds. These VOCs are formed as either intermediate or end products of manure degradation by various microorganisms. Among all the VOCs formed, VFAs, phenols, and indoles are considered as the most malodorous compounds. As the swine production processes become more intensive, the odor complaints from the nearby by residents are increasing. The public complaints regarding the air pollutants emitted from swine operations have threatened the viability and future of the swine industry. The odor problem is more prevalent in states like North Carolina where new residential neighborhoods are being built near the swine facilities. In addition to causing odor, these volatile organics have the propensity to react with NOX to form atmospheric ozone potentially affecting human, animal, plant, and aquatic life systems. Because of the environmental and health problems associated with volatile organics there is a growing interest in controlling VOC emissions from swine housing operations. Hence the goal of this research is to investigate biochar as an adsorbent to remove volatile organics from swine facilities. For this project pine-biochar will be tested as it will be abundantly available in the southeastern United States. Similarly, a mixture of p-cresol, isovaleradehyde, and acetic acid will be used as representative VOCs that are emitted from swine facilities (manure pits and lagoons) compounds. The specific objectives include: (1) laboratory testing of pine-biochar as adsorbent for a mixture of p-cresol, acetic acid, and isovaleraldehyde to determine determine the maximum adsorption capacity of char for p-cresol, acetic acid, isovaleraldehyde and to calculate the kinetic parameters describing the adsorption process and (2) perform field scale testing of pine-biochar in an experimental swine facility, and (3) perform an economic analysis of adsorption technique vis-a`-vis biofiltration and commercial odor suppressants. If successful, our proposed activity can reduce odor and air pollutants from swine facilities, improve the overall air quality, and the health of animals and people associated with swine industry.

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Spawning Activity of Mud Minnows (Fundulus heteroclitis) in Tank-based Systems for the Production of Baitfish

NCSU Sea Grant Program(5/01/11 - 6/01/13)

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Spawning Activity of Mud Minnows (Fundulus heteroclitis) in Tank-based Systems for the Production of Baitfish

Sponsor: NCSU Sea Grant Program

Start Date: 5/01/11

End Date: 6/01/13

Abstract

Recreational fishing in North Carolina has a significant impact on the coastal economy, estimated at $1.6 billion (Crosson, 2010). A important component of this industry is bait sales and more specifically, live bait. Based on survey responses, Crosson (2010) estimated that 8% of the total trip costs per angler were for bait. While this value does not differentiate between frozen and live bait, results from a recent survey on the marine baitfish industry indicated that the majority of saltwater anglers prefer live bait (Oesterling et al, 2010). Hence, anglers wanting live bait must either harvest it themselves or purchase it from a bait supplier. While fishermen's preference for purchasing live bait versus catching their own is not known, it is likely that a significant number of those anglers who must travel to the coast to fish would prefer to purchase live bait as opposed to spend time trying to harvest their own. In NC, mud minnows (Fundulus heteroclitus) are second to only bloodworms in total volume of sales, with the majority of dealers harvesting their own as opposed to purchasing them from a supplier (Marc Turano, unpublished data). Many bait dealers cite consistency in supply and quality control as major problems with selling live bait, including those that had previously sold live bait. The need for a consistent quality product along with large market share potential has generated interest in aquaculture possibilities of mud minnows in NC. Mud minnows have been cultured in ponds on a research scale in several Gulf-coasts states (Bull minnow-Fundulus grandis), along with current efforts in Delaware (Mud-minnow- Fundulus heteroclitus). While the production cycles for these species are known, much of the data has been generated from pond studies, and is not specific enough for tank production, specifically that of spawning activity (number of brooders per tank, number of daily spawns, length of spawning season, periodicity of spawning and egg production). Estimates of egg fecundity in mud minnows ranges from 100-300 eggs per female per day for 3-5 days (Oesterling et al.,2004). Growout to market size (for the bull minnow) is approximately 8-weeks, depending on temperature and stocking density (Wallace and Waters, 2004). However, these estimates have not been verified in a tank setting. We are interested in spawning activity of mud minnows held in tanks to determine if mud minnows can be cultured in mass using tank-based systems. However, because pond construction is cost-prohibitive at this time, and total market share, while encouraging, remains in question, we are interested in a tank-based system. Use of a tank-based system would require a lower start-up cost (especially in a small-scale system and would provide the opportunity to gradually enter the industry and build market share). Lastly, the ability to control the environment will lead to year-round production. If indeed mud minnow production is an 8-week cycle, we envision an 8-tank system that fish may be harvested from on a weekly cycle, after the initial 8-weeks. Further, if successful, ponds could be constructed to scale-up, leaving the tank system for holding, grading, and out-ofseason spawning. However, the lack of spawning data for mud minnows held in tanks prevents us from designing a production system of sufficient size and that is economically feasible to operate.

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