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2009
Author(s): Asleson, B.C., R.S. Nestingen, J.S. Gulliver, R.M. Hozalski, and J.L. Nieber
Title: “Performance Assessment of Rain Gardens”
Journal (Issue): Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 45(4): 1019-1031
Study Type: Field
Description: Three methods of assessing performance of rain gardens were evaluated for 12 rain gardens in Minnesota. The methods include: visual inspection, infiltration rate testing, and synthetic drawdown testing. The information provided from these assessment approaches can be helpful to determine if a rain garden was properly constructed, if it is currently functioning properly, and to develop maintenance schedules. Four rain gardens were determined to be nonfunctional, and it was believed that lack of maintenance was the most likely reason for failure.
Author(s): Blecken, G., Y. Zinger, A. Deletic, T.D. Fletcher, and M. Viklander.
Title: “Impact of a Submerged Zone and a Carbon Source on Heavy Metal Removal in Stormwater Biofilters”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(5): 769-778.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Including a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source has been shown to enhance denitrification. This study looks at how the presence of this design modification impact treatment of heavy metals. Biofilter mesocosms were used to test these conditions. The results show that a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source have a significant impact on metal treatment. Copper removal improved significantly. Lead and zinc removal was enhanced, but they had high removals (>95%) in standard biofilters, so the impact was less. The incorporation of a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source is recommended in stormwater biofilters due to their ability to further increase metal removal.
Author(s): Cho, K.W., K.G. Song, J.W. Cho, T.G. Kim, and K.H. Ahn
Title: “Removal of nitrogen by a layered soil infiltration system during intermittent storm events”
Journal (Issue): Chemosphere, 76(5), 690-696
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Fate of nitrogen species were examined for biological infiltration systems that consisted of a mulch layer, coarse soil layer, and fine soil layer. Different combinations of soils were used for the coarse and fine soil layers. Under intermittent wetting conditions, nitrate was being released at higher concentrations than synthetic stormwater concentrations. The nitrate wash-out became more severe as silt/clay contents increased in the coarse soil layer. Spatial distribution of nitrogen species were affected by the layering of the soil.
Author(s): Clark, S., and R. Pitt.
Title: “Storm-Water Filter Media Pollutant Retention under Aerobic versus Anaerobic Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(5): 367-371.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: In stormwater filters, there are times when no inflow enters and the pore water stagnates. During the stagnation period, anaerobic conditions could develop on a macro- or micro-scale. Four potential media filters were examined to determine their potential to retain trapped pollutants under anaerobic conditions. For the highly organic compost media, retention of nutrients may not occur under anaerobic conditions. The 4 types of media that were examined included: sand, activated carbon, peat moss, and compost.
Author(s): Davis, A.P., W.F. Hunt, R.G. Traver, and M.E. Clar.
Title: “Bioretention Technology: An Overview of Current Practice and Future Needs”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3): 109-117.
Study Type: Literature Review and Assessment of the Practice
Description: This article examined where the practice of bioretention stood in 2008/2009 by highlighting the research completed to date. It described how different design configurations are responsible for removing specific pollutants found in stormwater. Varying design guidance’s from different states (DE, MD, NC, and PA) with respect to maximum ponding depth and soil/filter media composition and depth were highlighted. It concluded with highlighting different areas of the practice that still need to be researched further to create more efficient design guidelines with respect to water quality, quantity and life-cycle costs.
Author(s): Diblasi, C.J., H. Li, A.P. Davis, and U. Ghosh.
Title: “Removal and gate of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Pollutants in an Urban Stormwater Bioretention Facility”
Journal (Issue): Environmenal Science and Technology, 43(2): 494-502.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Removal and fate of 16 USEPA priority pollutant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from stormwater were investigated. The EMC reduction of PAHs ranged from 31 to 99% for field water quality monitoring and bioretention media core analyses. The mean discharge EMC was 0.22 ug/L. There was an average load reduction of PAHs of 87%. The influent PAHs had a strong affiliation with TSS in runoff. Flouanthene and pyrene were the most dominant PAH species studied. When investigating sources, vehicle combustion processes and sealers used in parking lots and driveway coatings were the main sources. The media core analysis showed that PAHs were only transported to a depth of a few centimeters from the soil surface, suggesting that shallow cell design would be sufficient for systems that focused on PAH removal.
Author(s): Elliott, A.H., S.A. Trowsdale, and S. Wadhwa
Title: “Effect of Aggregation on On-Site Storm-Water Control Devices in an Urban Catchment Model”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 14(9): 975-983
Study Type: Modeling
Description: Source nodes for 0.82 square km catchment area were aggregated from 810 source areas, to 55, to 7, to 1 source area, to test the effects of aggregating sources in a watershed that contained detention, infiltration, or bioretention devices. The urban stormwater model used in these analyses was MUSIC. Water quantity and flow rates were examined for the various levels of detail. The impact of aggregation was measured by comparing the predictions from the aggregated models to the detailed model (810 source areas). Aggregation had little effect on baseflow (5%) for properly sized treatment devices and when soils had high permeability. Peak flow was overestimated by 38.1% for bioretention when aggregation was confined to 1 source area, 8.7% for 7 source areas, and 6.0% for 55 source areas. This study shows that aggregation can be used to reduce computational and input data demands, without much of a negative impact on prediction accuracy.
Author(s): Endreny, T., and V. Collins.
Title: “Implications of Bioretention Basin Spatial Arrangements on Stormwater Recharge and Groundwater Mounding”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(5): 670-677.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: MODFLOW was used to simulate bioretention response to examine how groundwater mounding responded to 3 spatial arrangements of bioretention cells (fully distributed units, clustered units, and single units). Thirty years of simulations showed a rise in the steady state water table by 1.1 m. Subsequent storm mounding was shown to interfere with subsurface infrastructure in about 20% of the watershed (localized in the floodplain). Mounding was the highest in the single units and lowest in the fully distributed units.
Author(s): Garbrecht, K., G.A. Fox, J.A. Guzman, and D. Alexander.
Title: “Technical Note: E. coli Transport through Soil Columns: Implications for Bioretention Cell Removal Efficiency”
Journal (Issue): Transactions of the ASABE, 52(2): 481-486.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Determining breakthrough concentration curves for E. coli. Head builds up when ponding is increased, which can increase flow velocity carrying E. coli, and reduce removal efficiency. Removal efficiency can be increased with addition of smaller particles (clays).
Author(s): Gilroy, K.L., and R.H. McCuen.
Title: “Spatio-Temporal Effects of Low Impact Development Practices”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 367(3-4): 228-236.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: This paper examines the effect of location and quantity of bioretention pits and cisterns on peak runoff rates and volumes. Percent reduction in peak flow rate and total volume is positively correlated to volume of the BMP storage. In looking at the microwatershed, location and volume of BMP storage influence effectiveness of BMPs.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Hydrologic and Pollutant Removal Performance of Stormwater Biofiltration Systems at the Field Scale”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 365(3-4): 310-321
Study Type: Field
Description: In order to increase the field-scale knowledge of biofiltration systems, three field-scale biofilters were monitored in Victoria and Queensland, Australia. The sites were monitored for small- to medium-sized storm events and simulated events to better understand hydraulic and treatment performance of biofilters. Water quality parameters analyzed included nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals and suspended solids. Performance was variable, depending on the design characteristics, but overall, these practices have potential to restore predevelopment hydrology and water quality.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Pollutant Removal Performance of Field-Scale Stormwater Biofiltration Systems”
Journal (Issue): Water, Science, and Technology, 59(8), 1567-1576
Study Type: Field
Description: Three field-scale biofilters were monitored for pollutant removal performance of TSS, heavy metals, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Rain events were simulated at one of the sites, and runoff events were monitored at the other two. This study confirmed previous findings that biofiltration systems are efficient at removal of TSS and heavy metals. Phosphorus retention was high, given that the filter media had low organic content. Nitrogen removal was quite variable due to the influence of wetting and drying.
Author(s): Jones, M.P. and W.F. Hunt.
Title: “Bioretention Impact on Runoff Temperature in Trout Sensitive Waters”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3), 577-585.
Study Type: Field
Description: Impact of media depth and size of bioretention cell with respect to the drainage area on reducing runoff temperature from asphalt parking lots in western NC were studied. Four bioretention cells of varying vegetation density and drainage area : bioretention cell surface area ratios were studied for 2 summers. Smaller bioretention areas were able to significantly reduce maximum and median temperatures between the inlet and outlet, where larger bioretention areas only significantly reduced the maximum temperatures. However, the larger systems showed evidence of larger volume reduction, which increases thermal load reduction. The effluent temperatures were coolest at deeper depths, so an optimum drain depth would be 90 to 120 cm in regions where coldwater streams are located.
Author(s): Kanematsu, M., A. Hayashi, M.S. Denison, and T.M. Young
Title: “Characterization and Potential Environmental Risks of Leachate from Shredded Rubber Mulches”
Journal (Issue): Chemosphere, 76(7), 952-958
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: This study examined the potential water quality risks of using shredded rubber mulches versus wood mulches. Batch testing took place to identify whether leachate contained metal ions, nutrients, total organic carbon, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity. The most significant water quality concern for using rubber mulches is zinc concentrations present in the leachate.
Author(s): Kazemi, F., S. Beechham, and J. Gibbs
Title: “Streetscale bioretention basins in Melbourne and their effect on local biodiversity”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(10), 1454-1465
Study Type: Field
Description: In Melbourne, Australia, biodiversities were compared between six bioretention basins and six corresponding paired greenscapes (2 subgroups – gardenbed and lawn), for one summer season. The data show a decreasing trend of number of species, species richness, and diversity from bioretention basins to gardenbed and lawn-type greenscapes. Using bioretention basins over traditional urban greenscapes can enhance urban biodiversity.
Author(s): Kazemi, F., S. Beechham, J. Gibbs, and R. Clay
Title: “Factors affecting terrestrial invertebrate diversity in bioretention basins in an Australian urban environment”
Journal (Issue): Landscape and Urban Planning, 92(3-4), 304-313
Study Type: Field
Description: In Melbourne, Australia, 12 bioretention basins were studied for biodiversity. Biodiversity was measured by capturing invertebrates through pitfall trappings; ten habitat factors were measured. Significant contributors to increased biodiversity were greater leaf/plant litter depth and larger number of plant taxa. Also, greater numbers of invertebrates were present closer to the center and away from the edges. This suggests that larger interior habitats could enhance biodiversity.
Author(s): Le Coustumer, S., T.D. Fletcher, A. Deletic, S. Barraud, and J.F. Lewis
Title: “Hydraulic performance of biofilter systems for stormwater management: Influences of design and operation”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 376(1-2), 16-23
Study Type: Field
Description: Hydraulic conductivity was measured for 37 existing biofiltration systems that varied with respect to age and drainage area characteristics. Approximately 40% of the systems measured had hydraulic conductivities lower than recommended values. Significant reductions in hydraulic conductivity occurred for the biofiltration systems that had higher initial conductivities, on average they were reduced by one-half of the initial value. Site characteristics, age, and inflow volume were not good predictors of conductivity. The critical determinant of long-term hydraulic behavior was initial hydraulic conductivity.
Author(s): Li, H., and A.P. Davis
Title: “Water quality improvement through reductions of pollutant loads using bioretention”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(8), 567-576
Study Type: Field
Description: Two bioretention cells were monitored in Maryland for a 15-month period. These bioretention cells were monitored for TSS, heavy metals, nutrients, and total organic carbon. Water quality and pollutant load estimates are calculated for runoff and bioretention effluent. Pollutant load reduction occurred for all pollutants except total organic carbon at one cell. Runoff volume reduction promoted pollutant mass removal.
Author(s): Li, H., L.J. Sharkey, W.F. Hunt, and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Mitigation of Impervious Surface Hydrology using Bioretention in North Carolina and Maryland”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 14(4): 407-415.
Study Type: Field
Description: Hydrologic performance was measured for 6 bioretention cells (4 in North Carolina & 2 in Maryland) using LID hydrology goal metrics proposed by Davis (2008). Media depth and relative volume to watershed size may be the primary design parameter controlling hydrologic performance. Analysis of annual water budget showed that exfiltration and evapotranspiration accounted for approximately 20-50% of annual runoff entering the bioretention cells.
Author(s): Line, D.E. and W.F. Hunt.
Title: “Performance of a Bioretention Area and a Level Spreader-Grass Filter Strip at Two Highway Sites in North Carolina”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 135(2): 217-224.
Study Type: Field
Description: Assessed the performance of a bioretention cell and level spreader-grass filter strip at highway sites in central NC. Data are available on peak flows, outflow reduction, turbidity, and concentration and load reductions for nitrogen species, phosphorus species, total suspended solids, and metals. The fill media at this site was 1.2 m deep, and little volume reduction was measured at this site. In general, highest load reduction came from TSS (76%) and the worst constituent was nitrate+nitrite-N (addition of 254%). Good reduction of heavy metals and moderate reductions of ammonia-N, total phosphorus, and TKN. Total nitrogen performance was poor (addition of 17%) due to the high levels of nitrate+nitrite-N being exported.
Author(s): Passeport, E., W.F. Hunt, D.E. Line, R.A. Smith, and R.A. Brown.
Title: “Field Study of the Ability of Two Grassed Bioretention Cells to Reduce Stormwater Runoff Pollution”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 135(4), 505-510.
Study Type: Field
Description: Examined the performance of bioretention cells vegetated with sod in Graham, NC. Two cells with 0.75 (North) and 1.05 m (South) deep media depth and internal storage zones were studied, and an expanded slate (Stalite) was used in the engineered media. When effluent concentrations at this site were compared to other conventionally vegetated (mulch/shrub/tree) bioretention cells in NC, these performed favorably. Data are available on fecal coliform, nitrogen species, and phosphorus species. With the exception of nitrate+nitrite-N, outflow concentrations for both cells were significantly lower than the inflow concentrations for all nitrogen species and phosphorus species studied. Nitrogen species load reductions ranged from 47-88% and phosphorus species reductions ranged from 52-77%. The North cell had a clay in-situ soil and the South cell had a sandy loam in-situ soil. The north cell had a significant reduction in nitrate+nitrite-N because water would remain in the internal storage zone longer and promote denitrification.
Author(s): Roseen, R.M., T.P Ballestero, J.J. Houle, P. Avellaneda, J. Briggs, G. Fowler, and R. Wildey.
Title: “Seasonal Performance Variations for Storm-Water Management Systems in Cold Climate Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3): 128-137.
Study Type: Field
Description: There are concerns with using LID practices in northern climates due to uncertainty of performance related to frozen filter media and dormant biological functions. Six varied LID practices were compared to conventional BMPs and manufactured BMPs. Performance was tested for a 24 month period at the University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center. Two types of bioretention cells were tested as part of the LID practices. Results showed a high level of functionality of LID practices in winter months and that performance is not reduced from frozen filter media. The results support the use of LID in cold climates. Many of the systems that are commonly used without concern for reduced winter performance actually have reduced performance. Parameters tested include: zinc, TSS, total phosphorus, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and total petroleum hydrocarbons-diesel.
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