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2009
Author(s): Asleson, B.C., R.S. Nestingen, J.S. Gulliver, R.M. Hozalski, and J.L. Nieber
Title: “Performance Assessment of Rain Gardens”
Journal (Issue): Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 45(4): 1019-1031
Study Type: Field
Description: Three methods of assessing performance of rain gardens were evaluated for 12 rain gardens in Minnesota. The methods include: visual inspection, infiltration rate testing, and synthetic drawdown testing. The information provided from these assessment approaches can be helpful to determine if a rain garden was properly constructed, if it is currently functioning properly, and to develop maintenance schedules. Four rain gardens were determined to be nonfunctional, and it was believed that lack of maintenance was the most likely reason for failure.
Author(s): Blecken, G., Y. Zinger, A. Deletic, T.D. Fletcher, and M. Viklander.
Title: “Impact of a Submerged Zone and a Carbon Source on Heavy Metal Removal in Stormwater Biofilters”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(5): 769-778.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Including a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source has been shown to enhance denitrification. This study looks at how the presence of this design modification impact treatment of heavy metals. Biofilter mesocosms were used to test these conditions. The results show that a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source have a significant impact on metal treatment. Copper removal improved significantly. Lead and zinc removal was enhanced, but they had high removals (>95%) in standard biofilters, so the impact was less. The incorporation of a submerged anoxic zone and carbon source is recommended in stormwater biofilters due to their ability to further increase metal removal.
Author(s): Cho, K.W., K.G. Song, J.W. Cho, T.G. Kim, and K.H. Ahn
Title: “Removal of nitrogen by a layered soil infiltration system during intermittent storm events”
Journal (Issue): Chemosphere, 76(5), 690-696
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Fate of nitrogen species were examined for biological infiltration systems that consisted of a mulch layer, coarse soil layer, and fine soil layer. Different combinations of soils were used for the coarse and fine soil layers. Under intermittent wetting conditions, nitrate was being released at higher concentrations than synthetic stormwater concentrations. The nitrate wash-out became more severe as silt/clay contents increased in the coarse soil layer. Spatial distribution of nitrogen species were affected by the layering of the soil.
Author(s): Clark, S., and R. Pitt.
Title: “Storm-Water Filter Media Pollutant Retention under Aerobic versus Anaerobic Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(5): 367-371.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: In stormwater filters, there are times when no inflow enters and the pore water stagnates. During the stagnation period, anaerobic conditions could develop on a macro- or micro-scale. Four potential media filters were examined to determine their potential to retain trapped pollutants under anaerobic conditions. For the highly organic compost media, retention of nutrients may not occur under anaerobic conditions. The 4 types of media that were examined included: sand, activated carbon, peat moss, and compost.
Author(s): Davis, A.P., W.F. Hunt, R.G. Traver, and M.E. Clar.
Title: “Bioretention Technology: An Overview of Current Practice and Future Needs”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3): 109-117.
Study Type: Literature Review and Assessment of the Practice
Description: This article examined where the practice of bioretention stood in 2008/2009 by highlighting the research completed to date. It described how different design configurations are responsible for removing specific pollutants found in stormwater. Varying design guidance’s from different states (DE, MD, NC, and PA) with respect to maximum ponding depth and soil/filter media composition and depth were highlighted. It concluded with highlighting different areas of the practice that still need to be researched further to create more efficient design guidelines with respect to water quality, quantity and life-cycle costs.
Author(s): Diblasi, C.J., H. Li, A.P. Davis, and U. Ghosh.
Title: “Removal and gate of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Pollutants in an Urban Stormwater Bioretention Facility”
Journal (Issue): Environmenal Science and Technology, 43(2): 494-502.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Removal and fate of 16 USEPA priority pollutant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from stormwater were investigated. The EMC reduction of PAHs ranged from 31 to 99% for field water quality monitoring and bioretention media core analyses. The mean discharge EMC was 0.22 ug/L. There was an average load reduction of PAHs of 87%. The influent PAHs had a strong affiliation with TSS in runoff. Flouanthene and pyrene were the most dominant PAH species studied. When investigating sources, vehicle combustion processes and sealers used in parking lots and driveway coatings were the main sources. The media core analysis showed that PAHs were only transported to a depth of a few centimeters from the soil surface, suggesting that shallow cell design would be sufficient for systems that focused on PAH removal.
Author(s): Elliott, A.H., S.A. Trowsdale, and S. Wadhwa
Title: “Effect of Aggregation on On-Site Storm-Water Control Devices in an Urban Catchment Model”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 14(9): 975-983
Study Type: Modeling
Description: Source nodes for 0.82 square km catchment area were aggregated from 810 source areas, to 55, to 7, to 1 source area, to test the effects of aggregating sources in a watershed that contained detention, infiltration, or bioretention devices. The urban stormwater model used in these analyses was MUSIC. Water quantity and flow rates were examined for the various levels of detail. The impact of aggregation was measured by comparing the predictions from the aggregated models to the detailed model (810 source areas). Aggregation had little effect on baseflow (5%) for properly sized treatment devices and when soils had high permeability. Peak flow was overestimated by 38.1% for bioretention when aggregation was confined to 1 source area, 8.7% for 7 source areas, and 6.0% for 55 source areas. This study shows that aggregation can be used to reduce computational and input data demands, without much of a negative impact on prediction accuracy.
Author(s): Endreny, T., and V. Collins.
Title: “Implications of Bioretention Basin Spatial Arrangements on Stormwater Recharge and Groundwater Mounding”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(5): 670-677.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: MODFLOW was used to simulate bioretention response to examine how groundwater mounding responded to 3 spatial arrangements of bioretention cells (fully distributed units, clustered units, and single units). Thirty years of simulations showed a rise in the steady state water table by 1.1 m. Subsequent storm mounding was shown to interfere with subsurface infrastructure in about 20% of the watershed (localized in the floodplain). Mounding was the highest in the single units and lowest in the fully distributed units.
Author(s): Garbrecht, K., G.A. Fox, J.A. Guzman, and D. Alexander.
Title: “Technical Note: E. coli Transport through Soil Columns: Implications for Bioretention Cell Removal Efficiency”
Journal (Issue): Transactions of the ASABE, 52(2): 481-486.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Determining breakthrough concentration curves for E. coli. Head builds up when ponding is increased, which can increase flow velocity carrying E. coli, and reduce removal efficiency. Removal efficiency can be increased with addition of smaller particles (clays).
Author(s): Gilroy, K.L., and R.H. McCuen.
Title: “Spatio-Temporal Effects of Low Impact Development Practices”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 367(3-4): 228-236.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: This paper examines the effect of location and quantity of bioretention pits and cisterns on peak runoff rates and volumes. Percent reduction in peak flow rate and total volume is positively correlated to volume of the BMP storage. In looking at the microwatershed, location and volume of BMP storage influence effectiveness of BMPs.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Hydrologic and Pollutant Removal Performance of Stormwater Biofiltration Systems at the Field Scale”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 365(3-4): 310-321
Study Type: Field
Description: In order to increase the field-scale knowledge of biofiltration systems, three field-scale biofilters were monitored in Victoria and Queensland, Australia. The sites were monitored for small- to medium-sized storm events and simulated events to better understand hydraulic and treatment performance of biofilters. Water quality parameters analyzed included nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals and suspended solids. Performance was variable, depending on the design characteristics, but overall, these practices have potential to restore predevelopment hydrology and water quality.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Pollutant Removal Performance of Field-Scale Stormwater Biofiltration Systems”
Journal (Issue): Water, Science, and Technology, 59(8), 1567-1576
Study Type: Field
Description: Three field-scale biofilters were monitored for pollutant removal performance of TSS, heavy metals, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Rain events were simulated at one of the sites, and runoff events were monitored at the other two. This study confirmed previous findings that biofiltration systems are efficient at removal of TSS and heavy metals. Phosphorus retention was high, given that the filter media had low organic content. Nitrogen removal was quite variable due to the influence of wetting and drying.
Author(s): Jones, M.P. and W.F. Hunt.
Title: “Bioretention Impact on Runoff Temperature in Trout Sensitive Waters”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3), 577-585.
Study Type: Field
Description: Impact of media depth and size of bioretention cell with respect to the drainage area on reducing runoff temperature from asphalt parking lots in western NC were studied. Four bioretention cells of varying vegetation density and drainage area : bioretention cell surface area ratios were studied for 2 summers. Smaller bioretention areas were able to significantly reduce maximum and median temperatures between the inlet and outlet, where larger bioretention areas only significantly reduced the maximum temperatures. However, the larger systems showed evidence of larger volume reduction, which increases thermal load reduction. The effluent temperatures were coolest at deeper depths, so an optimum drain depth would be 90 to 120 cm in regions where coldwater streams are located.
Author(s): Kanematsu, M., A. Hayashi, M.S. Denison, and T.M. Young
Title: “Characterization and Potential Environmental Risks of Leachate from Shredded Rubber Mulches”
Journal (Issue): Chemosphere, 76(7), 952-958
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: This study examined the potential water quality risks of using shredded rubber mulches versus wood mulches. Batch testing took place to identify whether leachate contained metal ions, nutrients, total organic carbon, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity. The most significant water quality concern for using rubber mulches is zinc concentrations present in the leachate.
Author(s): Kazemi, F., S. Beechham, and J. Gibbs
Title: “Streetscale bioretention basins in Melbourne and their effect on local biodiversity”
Journal (Issue): Ecological Engineering, 35(10), 1454-1465
Study Type: Field
Description: In Melbourne, Australia, biodiversities were compared between six bioretention basins and six corresponding paired greenscapes (2 subgroups – gardenbed and lawn), for one summer season. The data show a decreasing trend of number of species, species richness, and diversity from bioretention basins to gardenbed and lawn-type greenscapes. Using bioretention basins over traditional urban greenscapes can enhance urban biodiversity.
Author(s): Kazemi, F., S. Beechham, J. Gibbs, and R. Clay
Title: “Factors affecting terrestrial invertebrate diversity in bioretention basins in an Australian urban environment”
Journal (Issue): Landscape and Urban Planning, 92(3-4), 304-313
Study Type: Field
Description: In Melbourne, Australia, 12 bioretention basins were studied for biodiversity. Biodiversity was measured by capturing invertebrates through pitfall trappings; ten habitat factors were measured. Significant contributors to increased biodiversity were greater leaf/plant litter depth and larger number of plant taxa. Also, greater numbers of invertebrates were present closer to the center and away from the edges. This suggests that larger interior habitats could enhance biodiversity.
Author(s): Le Coustumer, S., T.D. Fletcher, A. Deletic, S. Barraud, and J.F. Lewis
Title: “Hydraulic performance of biofilter systems for stormwater management: Influences of design and operation”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrology, 376(1-2), 16-23
Study Type: Field
Description: Hydraulic conductivity was measured for 37 existing biofiltration systems that varied with respect to age and drainage area characteristics. Approximately 40% of the systems measured had hydraulic conductivities lower than recommended values. Significant reductions in hydraulic conductivity occurred for the biofiltration systems that had higher initial conductivities, on average they were reduced by one-half of the initial value. Site characteristics, age, and inflow volume were not good predictors of conductivity. The critical determinant of long-term hydraulic behavior was initial hydraulic conductivity.
Author(s): Li, H., and A.P. Davis
Title: “Water quality improvement through reductions of pollutant loads using bioretention”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(8), 567-576
Study Type: Field
Description: Two bioretention cells were monitored in Maryland for a 15-month period. These bioretention cells were monitored for TSS, heavy metals, nutrients, and total organic carbon. Water quality and pollutant load estimates are calculated for runoff and bioretention effluent. Pollutant load reduction occurred for all pollutants except total organic carbon at one cell. Runoff volume reduction promoted pollutant mass removal.
Author(s): Li, H., L.J. Sharkey, W.F. Hunt, and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Mitigation of Impervious Surface Hydrology using Bioretention in North Carolina and Maryland”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 14(4): 407-415.
Study Type: Field
Description: Hydrologic performance was measured for 6 bioretention cells (4 in North Carolina & 2 in Maryland) using LID hydrology goal metrics proposed by Davis (2008). Media depth and relative volume to watershed size may be the primary design parameter controlling hydrologic performance. Analysis of annual water budget showed that exfiltration and evapotranspiration accounted for approximately 20-50% of annual runoff entering the bioretention cells.
Author(s): Line, D.E. and W.F. Hunt.
Title: “Performance of a Bioretention Area and a Level Spreader-Grass Filter Strip at Two Highway Sites in North Carolina”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 135(2): 217-224.
Study Type: Field
Description: Assessed the performance of a bioretention cell and level spreader-grass filter strip at highway sites in central NC. Data are available on peak flows, outflow reduction, turbidity, and concentration and load reductions for nitrogen species, phosphorus species, total suspended solids, and metals. The fill media at this site was 1.2 m deep, and little volume reduction was measured at this site. In general, highest load reduction came from TSS (76%) and the worst constituent was nitrate+nitrite-N (addition of 254%). Good reduction of heavy metals and moderate reductions of ammonia-N, total phosphorus, and TKN. Total nitrogen performance was poor (addition of 17%) due to the high levels of nitrate+nitrite-N being exported.
Author(s): Passeport, E., W.F. Hunt, D.E. Line, R.A. Smith, and R.A. Brown.
Title: “Field Study of the Ability of Two Grassed Bioretention Cells to Reduce Stormwater Runoff Pollution”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 135(4), 505-510.
Study Type: Field
Description: Examined the performance of bioretention cells vegetated with sod in Graham, NC. Two cells with 0.75 (North) and 1.05 m (South) deep media depth and internal storage zones were studied, and an expanded slate (Stalite) was used in the engineered media. When effluent concentrations at this site were compared to other conventionally vegetated (mulch/shrub/tree) bioretention cells in NC, these performed favorably. Data are available on fecal coliform, nitrogen species, and phosphorus species. With the exception of nitrate+nitrite-N, outflow concentrations for both cells were significantly lower than the inflow concentrations for all nitrogen species and phosphorus species studied. Nitrogen species load reductions ranged from 47-88% and phosphorus species reductions ranged from 52-77%. The North cell had a clay in-situ soil and the South cell had a sandy loam in-situ soil. The north cell had a significant reduction in nitrate+nitrite-N because water would remain in the internal storage zone longer and promote denitrification.
Author(s): Roseen, R.M., T.P Ballestero, J.J. Houle, P. Avellaneda, J. Briggs, G. Fowler, and R. Wildey.
Title: “Seasonal Performance Variations for Storm-Water Management Systems in Cold Climate Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 135(3): 128-137.
Study Type: Field
Description: There are concerns with using LID practices in northern climates due to uncertainty of performance related to frozen filter media and dormant biological functions. Six varied LID practices were compared to conventional BMPs and manufactured BMPs. Performance was tested for a 24 month period at the University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center. Two types of bioretention cells were tested as part of the LID practices. Results showed a high level of functionality of LID practices in winter months and that performance is not reduced from frozen filter media. The results support the use of LID in cold climates. Many of the systems that are commonly used without concern for reduced winter performance actually have reduced performance. Parameters tested include: zinc, TSS, total phosphorus, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and total petroleum hydrocarbons-diesel.
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2008
Author(s): Bratieres, K., T.D. Fletcher, A. Deletic, and Y. Zinger.
Title: “Nutrient and Sediment Removal by Stormwater Biofilters: A Large-Scale Design Optimization Study”
Journal (Issue): Water Research, 42(14): 3930-3940.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: 125 large columns of varying plant species, filter media, filter depth, filter area, and pollutant inflow concentrations were tested to measure the performance of biofilters to remove sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The results showed that vegetation selection was critical for nitrogen performance. Phosphorus removal was consistently very high. Phosphorus removal was reduced for the filter media with added organic matter. According to this research, biofilters could be optimally designed to remove nutrients and TSS (up to 70% for nitrogen, up to 85% for phosphorus, and over 95% for TSS). The optimal biofilter was at least 2% of its catchment area, and was constructed with a sandy loam filter media. C. appressa and M. ericfolia were the most effective plants used in this study. This study took place in Melbourne, Australia.
Author(s): Davis, A.P.
Title: “Field Performance of Bioretention: Hydrology Impacts”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 13(2): 90-95.
Study Type: Field
Description: Study took place in College Park, Maryland. It introduced 3 new metrics to compare hydrologic performance of bioretention to LID hydrology goals for undeveloped land. It provided target values for these LID hydrology goals. The 3 metrics are for: (1) 24 hour flow volume reduction, (2) peak flow reduction, and (3) peak delay. Two lined cells were studied and they had media depths of 0.9 m and 1.2 m, where the deeper cell included an anoxic sump. The water quality data for these sites are available in Davis (2007).
Author(s): Emerson, C.H., and R.G. Traver.
Title: “Multiyear and Seasonal Variation of Infiltration from Storm-Water Best Management Practices”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 134(5): 598-605.
Study Type: Field
Description: Two infiltration stormwater BMPs have been continuously monitored in Southeastern Pennsylvania at Villanova University campus to determine long-term and seasonal variations of engineered infiltration of stormwater runoff. There has been no evidence of decrease in performance to date, but they both show considerable seasonal variation. The seasonal variation is mostly explained by temperature dependency of the viscosity of water. The two monitored systems are a pervious concrete infiltration basin (constructed in 2002) and the bio-infiltration traffic island (constructed in 2001). Essentially no maintenance has been performed on either BMP. While the time period studied is short compared to the life expectancy of the BMP, there is no evidence of decrease in performance. The importance of proper design, siting, pre-treatment, construction, and maintenance is emphasized to continue function as intended.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Hydraulic and pollutant removal performance of fine media stormwater filtration systems”
Journal (Issue): Environmental Science and Technology, 42(7), 2535-2541
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: An overall assessment on hydraulic and pollutant removal behavior was done on soil and sand stormwater filters. The impacts of time, cumulative inflow sediment and water volume, wetting and drying, and compaction were investigated. The formation of a clogging layer at the surface was the main cause of hydraulic failure. Sediment and heavy metals were effectively captured and retained; however, leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus occurred for the soil-based systems. Significant accumulations of all pollutants occurred in the top 20% of the filter profile. Based on the results of this study, the authors recommend removing the top 2-5 cm of filter media every 2 years to prevent hydraulic failure and to avoid excessive accumulation of heavy metals.
Author(s): Hunt, W.F., J.T. Smith, S.J. Jadlocki, J.M. Hathaway, and P.R. Eubanks.
Title: “Pollutant Removal and Peak Flow Mitigation by a Bioretention Cell in Urban Charlotte, NC”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 134(5): 403-408.
Study Type: Field
Description: Study took place in an ultra-urban location – Charlotte, NC. Data are available on fecal coliform, E. coli, metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, total suspended solids, and flow (peak flows). Bioretention was shown to effectively reduce peak runoff from small and mid-sized events, and it showed potential to reduce indicator species of pathogenic bacteria.
Author(s): Li, H., and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Urban Particle Capture in Bioretention Media. I: Laboratory and Field Studies”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 134(6): 409-418.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Column studies and field observations showed that media stratification occurs with runoff percolation due to particulate deposition, so periodic surface media replacement could be an effective measure in bioretention maintenance. The filter media are clogging limited, as opposed to breakthrough limited, so media clogging will always occur before TSS penetration. Depth/cake filtration significantly contributes to urban particle capture. Column tests showed incoming suspended solids could not significantly penetrate below 5 to 10 cm, where field observations exhibited penetration to depths up to 20 cm. The controlling effect on media clogging is the clay-sized components in the incoming suspended solids. The results suggest that removing the top 20 cm of media is sufficient in maintenance procedures to remove particles captured in runoff.
Author(s): Li, H., and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Urban Particle Capture in Bioretention Media. II: Theory and Model Development”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 134(6): 419-432.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: A 3-layer model was developed to describe particulate capture in bioretention media. The 3 layers include: pristine zone (bottom), working zone (middle), and cake zone (top). The mechanisms for depth filtration and cake filtration are examined through mass balances. The model predicts effluent TSS and media hydraulic conductivity. With proper assumptions, the model can be used to predict frequency of media replacement. The authors discuss that fauna and vegetation can play a role in loosening the media structure and maintaining media permeability, so laboratory tests may underestimate media permeability prediction.
Author(s): Li, H., and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Heavy Metal Capture and Accumulation in Bioretention Media”
Journal (Issue): Environmental Science & Technology, 42(14): 5247-5253.
Study Type: Field and Modeling
Description: This study examined capture and accumulation of various heavy metals (lead, copper, and zinc) in bioretention media using a 1-dimensional filtration equation for particulate metals, advection/dispersion/adsorption transport equations for dissolved metals, and sequential extractions. Based on a simple risk evaluation, the limiting metal in bioretention accumulation is lead. The results of this study suggest that shallow design (20-40 cm) is sufficient for systems focused on metal capture.
Author(s): Lloyd, S., and T. Wong.
Title: “Paired Catchment Storm Event Monitoring: Assessing the Performance of a Bioretention System (Rain Garden)”
Journal (Issue): Australian Journal of Water Resources, 12(1): 133-141.
Study Type: Field
Description: Runoff characteristics from a landscaped bioretention system were compared to a conventional concrete pipe system in a residential development in Victoria, Australia. The results showed that the extent of function depended on design characteristics, storm size, in-situ geology, and antecedent moisture conditions. Runoff volumes and peak flows were lower in the bioretention systems. The small, frequent storms were completely captured by the bioretention system. Consequently, pollutant loads were reduced through runoff retention and physical and/or chemical treatment processes. Pollutant load calculations made for 10 events showed reductions of gross pollutants (100%), TSS (68%), total phosphorus (68%), and total nitrogen (57%).
Author(s): Lucas, W.C., and M. Greenway.
Title: “Nutrient Retention in Vegetated and Non-vegetated Bioretention Mesocosms”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 134(5): 613-623.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Retention of dissolved nutrients by bioretention was studied using 30, 240 L bioretention mesocosms. Media used in the mesocosms were sandy loam, loamy sand, and pea gravel with loamy sand. Half of the mesocosms were vegetated and the rest were barren. The systems were loaded with synthetic stormwater and then tertiary effluent. When loaded with synthetic stormwater, retention of total phosphorus and total nitrogen were higher in the vegetated systems and higher with the sandy loam. The same results held true with the tertiary effluent. There was a substantial increase in total phosphorus and total nitrogen retention in the vegetated systems, higher than the uptake rates for plants, so other processes were likely involved.
Author(s): Muthanna, T.M., M. Viklander, and S.T. Thorolfsson.
Title: “Seasonal Climatic Effects on the Hydrology of a Rain Garden”
Journal (Issue): Hydrologic Processes, 22(11): 1640-1649.
Study Type: Field
Description: Two small-scale rain gardens in a small residential watershed in Trondheim, Norway, were studied to examine performance and winter hydrology in a cold climate. One rain garden was studied for 20 months and the other, which was used as the control, was only studied for 7 months. Hydraulic detention, lag time, and peak flow reduction were measured and compared seasonally. There was no significant difference between lag time. For 44 storms, the average peak flow reduction was 42%, but was only 27% during the winter season. A strong positive correlation between time since last wetting event and lag time was found. There was also a correlation between air temperature and hydraulic detention. Key parameters for hydraulic performance of rain gardens in cold climates are time between events and seasonal air temperatures. As a side note, the rain gardens weren’t used for snow storage areas.
Author(s): Muthukrishnan, S., and M. Oleske.
Title: “Effects of Lime Amendment on the pH of Engineered Soil Mix for the Purposes of Bioretention”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 134(5): 675-679.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: pH strongly influences pollutant attenuation behavior of bioretention systems. For native acidic soils, lime amendment can be a useful and easy technique to raise pH to aid in improving heavy metal sorption capacities. By adding 0.5% lime to the selected soil with pH of 4.8, the 7 day laboratory study showed that the pH exceeded the target range. Previous studies showed a range of 5.5 to 7 is appropriate for sorption of heavy metals.
Author(s): Pitt, R., S. Chen, S.E. Clark, J. Swenson, and C.K. Ong.
Title: “Compaction’s Impacts on Urban Storm-Water Infiltration”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 134(5): 652-658.
Study Type: Field
Description: Showed how the degree of compaction can greatly affect the steady-state infiltration rates for both sand and clay soils and for varying antecedent moisture conditions. Compaction in disturbed urban soils has a major impact on reduced infiltration. A major component in urban runoff models is soil infiltration, so understanding the effect of compaction is necessary to accurately predict stormwater runoff and bioretention outflow.
Author(s): Read, J., T. Wevill, T. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Variation among plant species in pollutant removal from stormwater in biofiltration systems”
Journal (Issue): Water Research, 42(4-5), 893-902
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: The impact of how different vegetation improves pollutant removal efficiency was studied using semi-synthetic stormwater passing through a soil filter medium. Twenty Australian plant species were tested. TSS, Al, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, N species, and P in effluent were measured. Presence of plants improved effectiveness of biofilters, but a variation in pollutant removal was observed for the different plant species. Variation in pollutant removal, by up to 20-fold, indicates that plant selection could have substantial influence on biofilter effectiveness. Some of the variation was explained by plant size.
Author(s): Thompson, A.M., A.C. Paul, and N.J. Balster.
Title: “Physical and Hydraulic Properties of Engineered Soil Media for Bioretention Basins”
Journal (Issue): Transactions of the ASABE, 51(2): 499-514
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Physical and hydraulic characteristics were measured for a variety of engineered bioretention media mixes. Infiltration, bulk density, and moisture holding capacity were measured for different composite mixtures of sand, soil, and compost. The effects of compaction were measured by its impact on bulk density, moisture holding capacity, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. A total of 11 mixtures were evaluated, with sand, sandy or silt loam soil, and organic compost ranging from 30-70%, 0-20%, and 20-70%, respectively.
Author(s): Zhang, W., G.O. Brown, and D.E. Storm.
Title: “Enhancement of Heavy Metals Retention in Sandy Soil by Amendment with Fly Ash”
Journal (Issue): Transactions of the ASABE, 51(4): 1247-1254.
Study Type: Laboratory and modeling
Description: Batch sorption and column leaching experiments were run to determine sorption of heavy metals (copper, lead, and zinc) in 3 soils (Dougherty sand, Teller loam, and Slaughterville loam), fly ash, and fly ash/sand mixtures. The mixture with the highest metals retention was fly ash, and the lowest was Dougherty sand. When fly ash was added to the Dougherty sand, the metals retention increased. A linear equilibrium, convection-dispersion transport model was used in conjunction with parameters determined from the laboratory columns to model heavy metals transport. The results of this showed a 1 m deep filter media of pure sand could remove heavy metals from stormwater for only 10 years, but when sand was mixed with 5% fly ash, metals removal would continue on for over 900 years.
Author(s): Zhang, W., G.O. Brown, D.E. Storm, and H. Zhang.
Title: “Fly Ash Amended Sand as Filter Media in Bioretention Cells to Improve Phosphorus Removal”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 80(6): 507-516.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Fly ash, 2 expanded shales, peat moss, limestone, and 2 common Oklahoma soils (Teller and Dougherty) were tested to identify materials with high phosphorus sorption capacity. Peat moss was a source of phosphorus. The 2 soils, limestone, and 1 of the expanded shales had modest sorption capacities. The other expanded shale and fly ash had significant sorption capacity. In its pure form, fly ash is not suitable due to its low permeability. With the addition of small amounts of fly ash to the sand, phosphorus sorption was increased significantly. Transport simulations were run to determine treatment capacities and lifetimes of the systems.
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2007
Author(s): Blecken, G.T., Y. Zinger, T.M. Muthanna, A. Deletic, T.D. Fletcher, and M. Viklander
Title: “The influence of temperature on nutrient treatment efficiency in stormwater biofilter systems”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 56(10), 83-91
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: A biofilter column study was performed at cold temperatures (2 oC, 8 oC, and 20 oC) to measure nitrogen removal. Little nitrogen leaching occurred at low temperatures (2 oC or 8 oC), while high production occurred at the control temperature (20 oC) [-208% removal, on average], due to lack of denitrification. NH4+ was removed at all temperatures, and nitrate increased at all temperatures, with the highest addition occurring at the control temperature (20 oC).
Author(s): Braga, A., M. Horst, and R.G. Traver.
Title: “Temperature Effects on the Infiltration Rate through an Infiltration Basin BMP”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133(6): 593-601.
Study Type: Field & Modeling
Description: Infiltration BMPs are sized to capture a predetermined volume of runoff. This volume is commonly referred to as the Water Quality Volume. This method does not take into account infiltration taking place during the event, which could result in oversized BMPs. Varying infiltration rates were simulated through a large-scale rock infiltration basin BMP using single event and continuous flow models to predict performance of the site. Effectiveness and accuracy of the model were compared to observed bed water elevation data recorded on site. When bed depths are less than 10 cm, hydraulic conductivity is the most sensitive parameter. Storm event measured infiltration rate is substantially less than the measured hydraulic conductivity in the soil. Temperature is the governing factor affecting hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate. Infiltration rate was affected by as much as 56%.
Author(s): Davis, A.P.
Title: “Field Performance of Bioretention: Water Quality”
Journal (Issue): Environmental Engineering Science, 24(8): 1048-1064.
Study Type: Field
Description: Examined inflow and outflow water quality for 2 bioretention cells on University of Maryland campus. The one cell had an anoxic sump and the other did not. Data are available on phosphorus, total suspended solids, copper, lead, zinc, and nitrate. For all analytes except nitrate, individual samples were taken and analyzed throughout 1 entire event. The hydrology data for these sites are available in Davis (2008).
Author(s): Dietz, M.E.
Title: “Low Impact Development Practices: A Review of Current Research and Recommendations for Future Directions”
Journal (Issue): Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 186(1-4): 351-363.
Study Type: Literature Review
Description: This article examined the research done to date on following low impact development practices: bioretention, pervious pavement, green roofs, and grassed swales. It highlights the effectiveness of the practices and issues that have been observed with prior research. The major issue with bioretention, grassed swales, and green roofs has been exporting phosphorus. With bioretention, retention of nitrate-nitrogen had been poor, but the practice has been shown to effectively retain large volumes of runoff and pollutants on site and consistently reduce metals. Future research needs were identified.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., A. Deletic, and T.D. Fletcher
Title: “Stormwater reuse: designing biofiltration systems for reliable treatment”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 55(4), 201-209
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Non-vegetated, soil-based filters were studied to examine performance of removal of TSS, heavy metals, and nutrients. Six different filter media were tested. Results showed removal of solids (>80%); and lead, copper, and zinc (>90%). Three of the filters were able to remove phosphorus. Five of the filters (excluding sand) were net producers of nitrogen. If reuse of stormwater is desired for irrigation, these practices are promising technologies because of their removal of heavy metals.
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., T.D. Fletcher, and A. Deletic
Title: “Hydraulic and pollutant removal performance of stormwater filters under variable wetting and drying regimes”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 56(12), 11-19
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: The impacts of hydraulic and pollutant removal on non-vegetated, soil-based filters were studied for varying antecedent weather conditions. During wet periods, semi-synthetic stormwater was applied 3 times a week. Dry periods ranged from 2 to 5 weeks. Infiltration capacity was reduced during the wet periods. No impact was observed for removal of sediment, heavy metals, and phosphorus, during different antecedent weather conditions. However, following extended dry periods, nitrogen effluent concentrations were the highest.
Author(s): Henderson, C., M. Greenway, and I. Phillips.
Title: “Removal of Dissolved Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Carbon from Stormwater by Bioinfiltration Mesocosms”
Journal (Issue): Water Science & Technology, 55(4): 183-191.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Biofiltration mesocosms were constructed for nutrient removal (nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon). Six treatments analyze 3 types of media (gravel, sand, and sandy-loam) and the presence or absence of vegetation. The vegetated mesocosms substantially reduced more nutrients than the non-vegetated ones. The results of flushing the mesocosms with tap water led to more leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus in the non-vegetated mesocosms than in the vegetated mesocosms. This shows that more nutrients can be retained in the media for vegetated systems during initial flush after an inter-event dry period. The plant growth was the best and most vigorous in the sandy-loam media.
Author(s): Hsieh, C., A.P. Davis, and B.A. Needelman.
Title: “Nitrogen Removal from Urban Stormwater Runoff through Layered Bioretention Columns”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 79(12): 2404-2411.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: 2 bioretention columns with different media-layering characteristics were investigated to determine fates of mineral nitrogen compounds. For the column with a high permeability layer over a low permeability layer, ammonium reduction was higher (68 +/-16%) compared to a column with an inverse configuration (12 +/- 6%). Both columns exported nitrate-nitrogen. This occurred as a result of washout from the nitrification processes that took place between runoff events. It was also shown that media with lower permeability in the lower layer could form an anoxic/anaerobic zone to promote denitrification processes.
Author(s): Hsieh, C., A.P. Davis, and B.A. Needelman.
Title: “Bioretention Column Studies of Phosphorus Removal from Urban Stormwater Runoff”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 79(2): 177-184.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Batch and column adsorption experiments and a pilot-scale layered column study were run to determine phosphorus removal from synthetic stormwater. Continuous column experiments were run. It was found that short-term dissolved phosphorus sorption capacity was positively correlated with slow reaction phosphorus sorption. In tests that had media with lower permeability below media with higher permeability (increased contact time), the phosphorus removal was higher (85% mass removal) than the opposite layering (63% mass removal). It is suggested through media extractions that most of the retained phosphorus in the media layers is available for plant uptake.
Author(s): Le Coustumer, S., T.D. Fletcher, A. Deletic, and S. Barraud.
Title: “Hydraulic Performance of Biofilters for Stormwater Management: First Lessons from both Laboratory and Field Studies”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 56(10): 93-100.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Since many systems fail after a few years of operation, this study looked at factors that influence hydraulic behavior over time. Field experiments showed that 43% of the systems tested were functioning below Australian guidelines for hydraulic conductivity. Size of biofilter relative to the catchment area, type of media, and evolution of hydraulic conductivity were examined. Initial trends show that systems with dense vegetation have higher hydraulic conductivities than those with sparse vegetation. Columns receiving more storm volume have lower hydraulic conductivities. Due to high loading rates, undersized biofilters will lead to a more rapid reduction in hydraulic conductivity.
Author(s): Minervini, W.P., E. Hong, E.A. Seagren, and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Discussion - of: Sustainable Oil and Grease Removal from Synthetic Stormwater Runoff using Bench-Scale Bioretention Studies”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 79(4): 447-449.
Study Type: Response to Laboratory Study
Description: This discussion looks back at the paper, Hong et al. (2006). The main issue in this discussion was that the studies insufficiently demonstrated the oil and grease removal by a thin surface-mulch layer, since they did not evaluate performance for systems without a surface-mulch layer. The response from Hong et al. was to look at the publication by Hsieh and Davis (2005) because they tested oil and grease removal for varying media that did not have an organic mulch layer present, and they had excellent removal (>96%).
Author(s): Muthanna, T.M., M. Viklander, G. Blecken, and S.T. Thorolfsson.
Title: “Snowmelt Pollutant Removal in Bioretention Areas”
Journal (Issue): Water Research, 41(18): 4061-4072.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Treatment of roadside snowmelt in bioretention was examined. Three urban roads in Trondheim, Norway, were studied (residential, and roads with medium and high-density traffic). Bioretention boxes had metal retention of 89-99% for cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc. The top mulch layer was the largest sink for retained metals. Up to 74% of the zinc was retained in the mulch. Plant metal uptakes accounted for 2-8% of total metal retention.
Author(s): Muthanna, T.M., M. Viklander, N. Gjesdahl, and S.T. Thorolfsson.
Title: “Heavy Metal Removal in Cold Climate Bioretention”
Journal (Issue): Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 183(1-4): 391-402.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Heavy metal removal of bioretention media in a cold climate setting was examined using pilot sized bioretention boxes built in Trondheim, Norway. Metal retention was good for both seasons (copper – 72%, lead – 82%, zinc – 90%) and the most dominant metal retention processes were through the mulch and soil column. Plant uptake was measured to be low (2-7%). Hydraulic loading rates were varied, and it was shown that they did not affect treatment efficiency.
Author(s): Muthanna, T.M., M. Viklander, S.T. Thorolfsson.
Title: “An Evaluation of Applying Existing Bioretention Sizing Methods to Cold Climates with Snow Storage Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 56(10): 73-81.
Study Type: Laboratory and Modeling
Description: Eight bioretention sizing and design methods were evaluated for rainfall runoff and snow storage for a cold, coastal climate in Trondheim, Norway. Thirty months of observed data from pilot-scale bioretention boxes were compared to results from the RECARGA bioretention infiltration model. Surface area, ponding time, number and duration of overflow events and snow storage were compared.
Author(s): Rusciano, G.M., and C.C. Obropta.
Title: “Bioretention Column Study: Fecal Coliform and Total Suspended Solids Reductions”
Journal (Issue): Transactions of the ASABE, 50(4): 1261-1269.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: 91.4 cm deep columns, packed with clean medium aggregate concrete sand were able to reduce fecal coliform and total suspended solids (TSS) found in diluted swine manure slurry. The levels found in the slurry matched the ranges found in the literature for urban stormwater. Results showed that bioretention columns could reduce fecal coliform and TSS found in diluted manure slurry. 11 out of 13 simulations reduced fecal coliform concentrations and 10 out of 15 simulations reduced TSS concentrations by more than 90%.
Author(s): Shuster, W.D., R. Gehring, and J. Gerken.
Title: “Prospects for Enhanced Groundwater Recharge via Infiltration of Urban Storm Water Runoff: A Case Study”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 62(3): 129-137.
Study Type: Case Study and Modeling
Description: Identified regions that had highest potential to abate stormwater quantity and recharge groundwater, using the simulation model RECARGA to predict the response of rain gardens to natural rainfall patterns. The results showed that the highest potential for runoff abatement occurred in soils with the lowest permeability, and these had the lowest groundwater recharge potential. Parcel-scale rain garden hydrology was modeled for 3 soil types in Cincinnati, Ohio, to estimate potential recharge, using actual or measured subsoil saturated hydraulic conductivities.
Author(s): Sun, X., A.P. Davis.
Title: “Heavy Metal Fates in Laboratory Bioretention Systems”
Journal (Issue): Chemosphere, 66(9): 1601-1609.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: This study looked more closely at simulating conditions of natural growth of plants to better understand the fates of heavy metals in bioretention. Different loadings of copper, cadmium, lead, and zinc were periodically applied. Metal accumulations in tissues of grasses were measured. The concentrations in the plant tissues were Zn>Cu>Pb>Cd. The fates of the metals were soil media (88-97%), released in effluent (2.0-11.6%), and accumulated in plants (0.5-3.3%). The plant uptake was relatively low compared to the metals retained in the media because the plant biomass produced in this study was low. In order to have a more valuable impact on prolonging lifetime of bioretention cells, biomass density would have to be increased.
Author(s): Weiss, P.T., J.S. Gulliver, and A.J. Erickson
Title: “Cost and pollutant removal of storm-water treatment practices”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 133(3), 218-229
Study Type: Cost Analysis
Description: Six different types of storm-water BMPs were evaluated for cost and effectiveness of removing TSS and phosphorus. The BMPs evaluated included: dry detention basins, wet basins, sand filters, constructed wetlands, bioretention filters, and infiltration trenches. Typical annual operation and maintenance costs of bioretention filters are 5-7% of construction cost. Estimates of total present cost of BMPs are presented based on water quality volume treated.
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2006
Author(s): Davis, A.P., M. Shokouhian, H. Sharma, and C. Minami.
Title: “Water Quality Improvement through Bioretention Media: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 78(3): 284-293.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Focused on removal of nitrogen species and phosphorus. Bioretention box experiments were set up where water could be sampled from 2 depths in the shallow boxes (61 cm deep) and 3 depths in the deep boxes (91 cm deep). The standard flow rate, duration, and runoff pH were 6 hours, 4.1 cm/hr, and 7.0 respectively. Performance was analyzed for double and half the standard values for flow duration, flow rate, pH in the runoff, and nutrient concentrations. The key findings were phosphorus removal increased up to approximately the 60 to 80 cm depth, most of the TKN was removed in the top few centimeters, and minimal nitrate uptake was measured because nitrate is very mobile.
Author(s): Dietz, M.E., and J.C. Clausen.
Title: “Saturation to Improve Pollutant Retention in a Rain Garden”
Journal (Issue): Environmental Science & Technology, 40(4): 1335-1340.
Study Type: Field
Description: This was an extension of Dietz and Clausen (2005). Examined whether creating a saturated zone in one of the rain gardens could improve retention of pollutants. Results showed significant reductions in nitrate+nitrite-N, ammonia-N, and total-N, where that were found in roof runoff and that total phosphorus significantly increased. The saturated garden had decreased redox potential, but it was unclear if adding a saturated zone would increase the reduction of nitrate+nitrite-N. The reason for it being unclear was several of the samples were at or below the detection limit for nitrate+nitrite-N during the calibration period (without saturated zone) and even more were at or below the limit during the treatment period (with saturated zone).
Author(s): Hatt, B.E., N. Siriwardene, A. Deletic, and T.D. Fletcher
Title: “Filter media for stormwater treatment and recycling: The influence of hydraulic properties of flow on pollutant removal”
Journal (Issue): Water Science and Technology, 54(6-7), 263-271
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: The impact of clogging on pollutant removal efficiency in stormwater biofilters was measured using a one-dimensional laboratory rig. These systems were efficient at removing TSS and other particulate pollutants, even when the biofilter became clogged. Removal of dissolved nutrients was variable and usually had little reduction, if any. Clogging did not improve efficiency, so it is important to prevent clogging to maintain hydraulic capacity and treatment performance, which will extend the life of stormwater biofilters.
Author(s): Heasom, W., R.G. Traver, and A. Welker.
Title: “Hydrologic Modeling of a Bioinfiltration Best Management Practice”
Journal (Issue): Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 42(5): 1329-1347.
Study Type: Field and Modeling
Description: A bioinfiltration cell on Villanova University’s campus in Pennsylvania was monitored and the measured water budget parameters were compared to those from a model of the drainage area and bioinfiltration BMP. The Green-Ampt and kinematic wave methods were used in HEC-HMS to model the field site. The model incorporates seasonally variable parameters (Green-Ampt parameter and surface infiltration rate). A bioinfiltration BMP is designed without underdrains.
Author(s): Hong, E., E.A. Seagren, and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Sustainable Oil and Grease Removal from Synthetic Stormwater Runoff using Bench-Scale Bioretention Studies”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 78(2): 141-155.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Oil and grease from vehicle emissions is a principle contaminant in urban stormwater runoff. The results from this study showed that a thin layer of mulch was used to effectively trap and remove oil and grease from synthetic runoff. Biodegradation of the following contaminants, sorbed naphthalene, toluene, oil, and particulate-associated naphthalene, took 3, 4, 8, and 2 days, respectively.
Author(s): Hunt, W.F., A.R. Jarrett, J.T. Smith, and L.J. Sharkey.
Title: “Evaluating Bioretention Hydrology and Nutrient Removal at Three Field Sites in North Carolina”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 132 (6): 600-608.
Study Type: Field
Description: Three bioretention cells examined in central NC. The sites had varying fill media and drainage configurations. Fill media with a high phosphorus-index (P-Index) was shown to export phosphorus. The Greensboro site that was monitored for hydrology showed excellent volume reduction (See Li et al., 2009); however, there was a seasonal effect on outflow reduction. Volume reduction was statistically less during the winter months. Field data did not strongly support the use of an internal water storage layer to reduce nitrate. Concentration and pollutant load data were analyzed for nitrogen and phosphorus species, total suspended solids, and heavy metals. Overall performance varied for this field study. Good (volume reduction, load reduction when proper media was used) and poor (phosphorus and organic nitrogen exported from cells when media was saturated with phosphorus and organics) performance.
Author(s): Roseen, R.M., T.P Ballestero, J.J. Houle, P. Avellaneda, R. Wildey, and J. Briggs.
Title: “Storm Water Low-Impact Development, Conventional Structural, and Manufactured Treatment Strategies for Parking Lot Runoff: Performance Evaluations under Varied Mass Loading Conditions”
Journal (Issue): Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1984: 135-147.
Study Type: Field
Description: Treatment was evaluated for water quality performance and volume reduction for a variety of structural BMPs, LID practices, and manufactured BMPs. One of which was bioretention cells. Water quality analysis was done for TSS, hydrocarbons, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and zinc. With the bioretention systems, flows were reduced and delayed over several days. The top performers included the bioretention system because it was routinely achieving removal efficiencies greater than 95% for the analytes tested.
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2005
Author(s): Dietz, M.E., and J.C. Clausen.
Title: “A Field Evaluation of Rain Garden Flow and Pollutant Treatment”
Journal (Issue): Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 167: 123-138.
Study Type: Field
Description: One of the first published papers on field performance of rain gardens. Two rain gardens in Haddam, CT, received rooftop runoff. Samples were analyzed for total phosphorus, nitrogen species, and heavy metals. Inflow, overflow, and percolate flow were measured, and redox potential was measured. Poor treatment of nitrate, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and total phosphorus found in rooftop runoff was observed. Total phosphorus concentrations were higher in the effluent than in the influent. Many of the samples run of heavy metals fell below the detection limits. NH3-N was the only pollutant that was significantly lower in the effluent than the influent for both gardens, and 1 garden had significant values for total nitrogen. The rain gardens worked well for overall flow retention, but had minimal impact on reducing pollutant concentrations. In areas where rain gardens could be installed without underdrains, they would be very effective in reducing pollutant loads.
Author(s): Dussaillant, A.R., A. Cuevas, and K.W. Potter.
Title: “Raingardens for Stormwater Infiltration and Focused Groundwater Recharge: Simulations for Different World Climates”
Journal (Issue): Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, 5(3-4): 173-179.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: A simple numerical model was developed to model rain gardens to predict recharge rates for different climates (humid, semi-arid, and arid). Water is modeled over 3 layers: (1) root zone, (2) middle storage layer, and (3) site subsoil. A Green-Ampt equation was coupled with a surface water balance to continuously simulate recharge, runoff, and ET, for 5 year periods. For the Green-Ampt equation, RECARGA model was used. The results showed that the optimum ratio of area of rain garden to contributing impervious area was 10-20% for a humid (Madison, WI [rainy season only]) and semi-arid (Santiago, Chile) climate, and closer to 5% for an arid climate (Reno, NV).
Author(s): Hsieh, C., and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Evaluation and Optimization of Bioretention Media for Treatment of Urban Storm Water Runoff”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Environmental Engineering, 131(11): 1521-1531.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Synthetic runoff was applied to 18 bioretention columns with different media mixtures and configurations and 6 existing bioretention cells to measure infiltration rate and pollutant removals for oil/grease, lead, total suspended solids, total phosphorus, nitrate, and ammonium. Two on-site experiments were conducted during a rainfall event to compare it to the laboratory investigation.
Author(s): Hsieh, C., and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Multiple-Event Study of Bioretention for Treatment of Urban Storm Water Runoff”
Journal (Issue): Water Science & Technology, 51(3-4): 177-181.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Synthetic runoff was passed through a bioretention test column once per week for 12 weeks to analyze performance for consecutive events. The results showed excellent removal efficiencies for TSS, oil/grease, and lead (>99%), and total phosphorus removals ranged from 47-68% (increased slightly throughout monitoring period). Nitrate concentrations increased during the first 5 weeks of the study and were higher than the influent, but then they were displaying removal efficiencies of 9-20% afterwards. This was due to nitrate in the mulch leaching out. This study confirmed long-term effectiveness of a bioretention column for water quality improvement.
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2004
Author(s): Brander, K.E., K.E. Owen, and K.W. Potter.
Title: “Modeled Impacts of Development Type on Runoff Volume and Infiltration Performance”
Journal (Issue): Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 40(4): 961-969.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: Four development types were modeled with and without infiltration practices to determine the effects on urban runoff. The 4 development types include: conventional curvilinear, urban cluster, coving, and new urbanisms. A modified version of the NRCS runoff method was used to model the developments and infiltration practices. Infiltration practices were most effective for small storms and in development with Hydrologic Group A soils. By using infiltration practices to treat much of the impervious areas, significant runoff reductions can be achieved. Infiltration practices like rain gardens were modeled using Infiltration Patch (IP), which is a spreadsheet based model that utilizes and expands upon the NRCS runoff model. IP is not a continuous model and will not simulate ongoing changes in soil moisture conditions. Some of the modeled combinations included having rain gardens treating 10% of the street and another combination had rain gardens treating 10 or 30% of the roof areas.
Author(s): Dussailant, A.R., C.H. Wu, and K.W. Potter.
Title: “Richards Equation Model of a Rain Garden”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 9(3): 219-225.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: Development of a numerical model that can be applied to rain garden design and evaluation. The model couples Richards Equation with a surface water balance to continuously simulate recharge, runoff, and ET. Three layers are modeled which include: (1) root zone, (2) middle storage layer of high conductivity, and (3) lower subsoil layer. The model was run for the climate in southern Wisconsin, and it showed very high recharge rates during the non-snowfall season. This model did not include snowmelt. Groundwater recharge is maximized when the rain garden area is about 10-20% of the contributing impervious area. By increasing depression depth, recharge and saturation times increase which can affect plant survival. Feasibility of rain gardens with this model depends on subsoil hydraulic conductivity because this model does not include drainage pipes.
Author(s): Graham, P., L. Maclean, D. Medina, A. Patwardhan, and G. Vasarhelyi.
Title: “The Role of Water Balance Modelling in the Transition to Low Impact Development”
Journal (Issue): Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, 39(4): 331-342.
Study Type: Modeling
Description: Conventional stormwater management practices focused on quantity and controlling a few extreme rainfall events. LID focuses on treating more frequent storms which represent the majority of total runoff volume and carry most of the pollutants. These frequent events can most effectively be managed with a volume control approach. Using water balance modeling can be an effective tool for evaluating and supporting implementation of LID options. LID options include: bioretention, pervious pavement, other infiltration systems, rainwater harvesting, and green roofs. This paper discusses water balance modeling software that has been recently developed, as well as an Internet-based planning tool and a design optimization tool.
Author(s): Morzaria-Luna, H.M., K.S. Schaepe, L.B. Cutforth, and R.L. Veltman.
Title: “Implementation of Bioretention Systems: A Wisconsin Case Study”
Journal (Issue): Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 40(4): 1053-1061.
Study Type: Field & Case Study for Implementing Bioretention
Description: In a subdivision in Cross Plains, WI, implementing bioretention systems were analyzed through examining archival data interviewing key participants involved in the case study. It was determined that despite regulatory and political pressures encouraging inclusion of bioretention, current stormwater management standards prevailed. Developers had to meet both existing requirements and anticipated rules requiring infiltration, so bioretention systems only supplemented traditional practices and did not replace them. Confusion about dual standards led to substantial delays in the negotiations among relevant stakeholders in the watershed. The results from this case study can be viewed as both a cautionary tale and a success story. In order to incorporate water quality improvement technologies, such as bioretention, careful review and refinement of existing storm water ordinances are necessary. The successful development served as a positive prototype for other BMPs in the region. Water quality data at this site has led to development of the first Wisconsin county ordinance to incorporate quantity and quality of stormwater runoff.
Author(s): Tshabalala, M.A., K.G. Tshabalala, and D.W. Karthikeyan.
Title: “Cationized Milled Pine Bark as an Adsorbent for Orthophosphate Anions”
Journal (Issue): Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 93(4): 1577-1583.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Cationized milled pine bark was studied to find more efficient ways to adsorb dissolved phosphorus from surface runoff. Preliminary results in the batch adsorption experiments showed cationized milled pine bark had an estimated maximum adsorption capacity of approximately 12.65 mg phosphate / g. This adsorption capacity compares favorably to other well-known phosphorus sorbents. This material is low-cost and abundant and could be used in mixtures for sorption media to remove dissolved phosphorus from water.
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2003
Author(s): Davis, A.P. M. Shokouhian, H. Sharma, C. Minami, and D. Winogradoff.
Title: “Water Quality Improvement through Bioretention: Lead, Copper, and Zinc Removal”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 75(1): 73-82.
Study Type: Laboratory and Field
Description: Synthetic stormwater was applied to pilot-plant bioretention systems and 2 existing facilities. Removal rates based on concentration and load reductions were close to 100% for heavy metals (lead, copper, and zinc). For most samples, effluent copper and lead values were less than 5 ug/L, and zinc levels were less than 25 ug/L. Somewhat less removal was noted for shallower systems (less than 30 cm). The field investigations supported the laboratory experiments. Accumulation of metals could be a concern, but build-up problems wouldn’t be expected for at least 15 years because metal concentrations are low in runoff.
Author(s): Kim, H., E.A. Seagren, and A.P. Davis.
Title: “Engineered Bioretention for Removal of Nitrate from Stormwater Runoff”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 75(4): 355-367.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: Studied the effects of including a continuously submerged anoxic zone in the bottom of a bioretention cell in order to improve nitrate reduction by creating anaerobic (denitrifying) conditions. Four phases were examined: (1) finding a potential electron donor (shredded newspaper worked best), (2) optimizing the nitrate loading and hydrologic loading rate, (3) performance was analyzed for various dormant periods (recovery of long dormant phases were effective for the 2 longest dormant periods – 30 and 84 days), and (4) running samples for a pilot-scale bioretention system. The results showed the effectiveness of a continually submerged anoxic zone with an overdrain to remove nitrate by denitrification in bioretention cells.
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2002
Author(s): Pitt, R., S. Chen, and S. Clark.
Title: “Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs”
Journal (Issue): Conf. proceedings. 9th International Conference on Urban Drainage, September 2002.
Study Type: Field
Description: Examined the impacts of compaction on infiltration rates in clay and sandy soils (153 double ring infiltrometer tests). Having knowledge of compaction can be used to more accurately predict stormwater runoff quantity, which will improve designs for bioretention systems. There was also discussion on groundwater impacts associated with infiltrating stormwater.
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2001
Author(s): Davis, A.P., M. Shokouhian, H. Sharma, and C. Minami.
Title: “Laboratory Study of Biological Retention for Urban Stormwater Management”
Journal (Issue): Water Environment Research, 73(1): 5-14.
Study Type: Laboratory
Description: First published laboratory study on bioretention effectiveness. Batch, column, and pilot-scale studies proved bioretention is an effective urban stormwater treatment device. The roles of soil, mulch, and plants were evaluated to estimate the treatment capacity from these laboratory studies for heavy metals, phosphorus, and nitrogen species. There was excellent reductions of metals; moderate reductions of TKN, ammonium, and total phosphorus; and there was little reduction in nitrate. Definition: biological retention (bioretention) – combine natural and engineered system to manage stormwater runoff in small developments (0.25 – 2 ac). Designed to hold first flush runoff event.
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1999
Author(s): Pitt, R., S. Clark, and R. Field.
Title: “Groundwater Contamination Potential from Stormwater Infiltration Practices”
Journal (Issue): Urban Water, 1(3): 217-236.
Study Type:
Description: Potential effects of groundwater contamination from stormwater infiltration practices were discussed based on: (1) presence of problem constituents found in stormwater, (2) mobility of constituents in the soil, (3) type of treatment before infiltration, and (4) the infiltration method that was used. Problem constituents include: chloride, pesticides, organic toxicants, pathogens, and some heavy metals. Reported groundwater contamination in residential areas has been rare. It occurred more often in commercial and industrial areas that incorporated subsurface infiltration.
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1993
Author(s): Coffman, L., R. Green, M. Clar, and S. Bitter.
Title: “Development of Bioretention Practices for Stormwater Management”
Journal (Issue): Water Management in the 90’s: A Time for Innovation, K. Hon, ed., ASCE, Reston, Va., 126-129.
Study Type: Introduction to Bioretention
Description: Introduces the concept of bioretention as a stormwater practice to improve water quality. It is a method to treat the first flush of runoff using retention, vegetation, and soil conditioning.
Author(s): Coffman, L., R. Green, M. Clar, and S. Bitter.
Title: “Design Considerations Associated with Bioretention Practices”
Journal (Issue): Water Management in the 90’s: A Time for Innovation, K. Hon, ed., ASCE, Reston, Va., 130-133.
Study Type: Introduction to Bioretention
Description: Discusses the first set of design requirements in more detail, as well as, methods for sizing and preparing grading and planting plans for bioretention areas.
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