FOR BOY SCOUTS

by Timothy R. Seaboch

A properly constructed and maintained trail is something that one does not think about when hiking. One does notice the scenic views, the natural settings, the signs of wildlife, and the good memories of a pleasing hike. However, if the trail is in poor shape, one does tend to remember the ducking to avoid overhanging branches, getting slapped in the face by limbs, tripping over rocks and roots, walking though the muck, and even losing the trail altogether.

What makes the difference between a 'good' trail and a 'bad' trail? There are lots of reasons why some trails - even trails which were once good - are in poor shape. This paper discusses things which will allow a person to understand some of the basic construction and maintenance principles of trails. These principles will provide a good starting point for those people interested in providing the best in hiking experiences.

TERMINOLOGY

To talk about trails, one must understand the anatomy of a trail. Here are some terms that are basic to all trails:

Tread -- the part of a trail on which people walk; this is usually two to three feet wide.

Right-of-way -- the area around the tread that is cleared for passage; this is usually four to six feet wide and eight to ten feet high.

Corridor -- the area that a hiker sees while walking on the trail; this may vary in width from a few feet to several hundred feet, depending on the surrounding vegetation and the topography.

Buffer zone -- natural settings which block detrimental views or protect fragile areas.

TRAIL FORMATS

Trails are built for many purposes. Trails protect the environment by directing people on a proper route, therefore saving the landscape from trampling. Trails are also built to guide people to destinations, or to provide a pathway for educational or scenic journeys. Here are the common formats of trails:

Loop -- a trail that forms a circle upon itself and has one opening, or trailhead. A hiker does not have to travel both ways along the same trail. This is a popular format for short hikes and nature trails.

Horseshoe -- a trail that has two trailheads. This type of trail format is good for channeling people around roads or for providing alternative routes.

Line -- a trail that has one trailhead and continues on to a destination. Destinations may be either scenic or functional, such as mountain peaks, waterfalls, or fire towers.

Trail system -- a collection of trails using the loop, horseshoe, and line trail formats in order to provide different needs and expectations of the hiker and his abilities.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

A trail becomes fragile when it is trampled so much that the tread loses its ability to absorb water; this is due to compaction. If the trail cannot absorb water, then the water will run along or across the tread and cause erosion. Erosion is the washing away of the tread or the earth which supports it. Water may wash along the trail and carve a ditch in the tread making it difficult for good footing. Water may also wash across the trail creating a gully. Water which cannot drain away will cause the trail area to become wet and mucky. This is why the three worst natural enemies of a trail are said to be water, water, and water. Proper design and maintenance will minimize this enemy of the trail.

THE IDEAL TRAIL

The ideal trail is one along which a large hiker with a full-sized backpack can walk erect without touching limbs, trees, or brush. The footing is firm, and clear of obstruction. The line of sight is open ahead of the hiker. The views are pleasing to the hiker.

However, before one can build the ideal trail, certain things must be done ahead of time. The purpose of the trail must be considered. The topography of the land must be assessed. Fragile areas must be avoided. Vegetation should be utilized to its best advantage. Most importantly, good leadership must be present at all times, in order to ensure that all of the standards of trail design are understood and followed by the work crews involved. Let's talk about each in turn:

Purpose -- What is the trail for? Does it offer a connection between destinations? Is it meant to divert people from roads or other high road traffic areas? Is it meant to provide scenic views or educational value?

Topography -- Using the lay of the land is one of the most challenging aspects of trail design. A good trail will fit the natural lay of the land; it will have smooth turns; it will not be too steep; and it will keep foot traffic away from fragile areas.

Fragile areas -- Areas which may be destroyed, diminished in natural beauty, or dangerous to the hiker should be avoided by the main trail. Examples of these areas include (but are not limited to) beach fronts, swamps, and man-made objects. The main trail will stay away from these areas. If appropriate, a line trail (side trail) will branch off of the main trail to provide access to areas which are fragile. Side trails may lead to beach fronts, campsites, or other areas which should not have through traffic.

Vegetation -- Vegetation can be used as buffers to protect fragile areas. For instance, a trail can be designed to have a dense patch of vegetation on the inside of a turn to discourage shortcuts. Vegetation can channel foot traffic along the appropriate path, or protect fragile areas by screening them out of sight. Vegetation can also provide aesthetics.

Leadership -- The best plans in the world will not build a good trail if someone is not in charge. Ensuring that everyone knows the purpose of the trail and his part in building it needs to be coordinated by a leader who sees and understands the overall goal. The overall goal of an ideal trail will be realized when everyone works together for the common purpose.

TRAIL DESIGN

The layout of a trail is the first consideration in building a trail. Look at a topographic map (and other maps) to get a general idea of where the trail should be located. Try to keep the grade below 20%, if possible. ('Grade' is the number of feet the trail rises in 100 feet of horizontal distance, expressed as a percentage.) Don't let a trail make too many turns in a short distance. Also, try to avoid long, straight trails. Use flagging tape to temporarily mark the proposed trail, using the principles of the ideal trail. Walk along the trail and discuss why the trail is good where it is or why the course should be altered. Do this in both directions. If you alter the course in one direction, be sure to see what effect it has when traveling in the other direction.

Remember to avoid turns which are too sharp, because that will encourage shortcuts. Likewise, a trail that doubles back too close to itself will also encourage shortcuts. Shortcuts should be discouraged.

TRAIL CONSTRUCTION

Clearing

Now is the time to begin constructing the tread. Try to avoid cutting large trees. Smaller trees should be cut flush with the ground. Cut small brush flush with the ground, too. One does not want to leave anything over which to trip!

Once the tread has been defined, the right-of-way should be cleared. Clear the right-of-way to the appropriate dimensions, usually four to six feet wide. A narrower right-of-way may be appropriate in dense vegetation or for a 'tunnel' effect. Always cut branches flush with the trunk of the tree; make an undercut first so that the falling branch will not strip the bark down the tree. Clearing the right-of-way is called brushing. Either use the cut materials in the trail construction, or spread them out in the surrounding area; do not make piles.

Tools for Cutting

To assist in clearing the right-of-way, certain tools are available for use. These tools should only be used with proper instruction and supervision. Listed below are some of the common tools available to Boy Scouts for cutting branches and brush:

Bow Saw -- This saw is used for cutting small trees and thick, brushy branches. Cut large branches flush with the main trunk of the tree; cut smaller branches flush with the branch to which they are attached.

Pole Saw -- This saw is used for cutting branches which are hard to reach because of their height above the ground. Cut the branches the same way you would with the bow saw.

Hatchet -- This can be used to cut smaller branches flush with the main trunk. Be careful! Used without proper instruction, a hatchet is a dangerous item! Always cut branches with a smooth motion toward the top of the tree.

Lopper -- This is used for cutting smaller branches in a scissors-like fashion. Don't try to cut anything larger than your thumb in diameter.

Erosion Control

Trails that are on the sides of hills should be outsloped. This means that water from above should flow over the trail instead of along it. Trails that may have too much water flowing along it should have waterbars. A waterbar will divert the water flowing along the trail to the downhill side. A waterbar can be made from either a log or a series of overlapping rocks.

Another method of erosion control would be to reroute the trail or a portion of the trail. This technique may be used with careful consideration after the tread has become excessively worn or compacted.

Tools for Digging

Listed below are some of the common tools available to Boy Scouts for digging and earth or rock moving:

Shovel -- Used for making waterbars and filling holes. A pointed shovel will cut ground well; a flat-bottomed shovel is useful for moving loose earth.

Mattock -- Used for making cuts in hard ground. It can also be used for prying rocks out of the ground.

Marking the Trail

Paint blazes, or marks, are the most common method of marking a trail; it is also the easiest to maintain. A paint blaze is easy to see and provides no ambiguity as to its purpose. Acceptable colors include blue, red, yellow, white, and orange, but the color for any particular trail should be consistent. Use a paint that is appropriate in outdoor weather.

To mark the trail, first look down the completed trail; pick a live and sturdy tree which is easily noticeable along the trail. On this tree paint a vertical bar which is two inches wide by six inches tall at eye level (between five and six feet above the ground). Be sure to prepare the surface before you paint; scrub off dirt, lichen, or loose bark with a wire brush or a scraper. Use a brush with which to paint; spray paint can be used, but use a stencil to keep the paint from straying.

Blaze only one direction at a time. The recommended distance between blazes on trails that have narrow corridors with obvious tread is 100 to 200 feet. On trails in open trees or where the tread is not obvious, a 30 to 50 foot distance is recommended. However, do not abruptly change the frequency of the blazes for any reason; it may lead to confusion for the hiker.

If the trail abruptly changes direction, a double vertical bar may be used. Place the second vertical bar to the side of the first toward the direction of the turn; place it higher by three inches.

If the course of a trail is to be altered (or - in extreme cases - if the trail is to be abandoned), paint over obsolete blazes with a color that matches the bark of the tree.

TRAIL MAINTENANCE

At least once a year a trail should be patrolled. Patrolling is simply regular maintenance of the trail. This is when one checks the trail and corrects any problems which may have occurred. Things for which to check include erosion of the tread, encroachment (look it up!) of branches into the right-of- way, waterbars that have lost their utility, blazes which have faded, and other impediments to the hiking experience.

REFERENCES

Boy Scouts of America. The Conservation Handbook. 1991. Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America.

Kay, Matthew W. (Personal correspondence.) 1994.

Proudman, Robert D. and Rajala, Reuben. AMC Field Guide to Trail Building and Maintenance (2 ed.). 1981. Appalachian Mountain Club.

The author is an Assistant Scoutmaster with BSA Troop 236 in Raleigh, NC, USA. He may be contacted with the following e-mail address: